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• Introduction

General characteristics

• Literary use of myths
• Folk literature
• Vernacular fiction
• Classical literature
• Vernacular literature
• Poetry and prose nonfiction
• Prose fiction
• 19th-century translations of Western literature
• 19th-century native prose and poetry
• May Fourth period
• The war years: 1937–49
• After the Cultural Revolution
• Literature in Taiwan after 1949

Chinese literature

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• World History Encyclopedia - Chinese Literature
• Association for Asian Studies - Chinese Literature: An Introduction
• Columbia University - Asia for Educators - Introduction to Chinese Literature
• Chinese literature - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• Chinese literature - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

Chinese literature , the body of works written in Chinese, including lyric poetry , historical and didactic writing, drama , and various forms of fiction .

Chinese literature is one of the major literary heritages of the world, with an uninterrupted history of more than 3,000 years, dating back at least to the 14th century bce . Its medium, the Chinese language , has retained its unmistakable identity in both its spoken and written aspects in spite of generally gradual changes in pronunciation, the existence of regional and local dialects , and several stages in the structural representation of the written graphs, or “characters.” Even the partial or total conquests of China for considerable periods by non-Han Chinese ethnic groups from outside the Great Wall failed to disrupt this continuity , for the conquerors were forced to adopt the written Chinese language as their official medium of communication because they had none of their own. Since the Chinese graphs were inherently nonphonetic, they were at best unsatisfactory tools for the transcription of a non-Chinese language, and attempts at creating a new alphabetic-phonetic written language for empire building proved unsuccessful on three separate occasions. The result was that after a period of alien domination, the conquerors were culturally assimilated (except the Mongols, who retreated en masse to their original homeland after the collapse of the Yuan [or Mongol] dynasty in 1368). Thus, there was no disruption in China’s literary development.

Through cultural contacts, Chinese literature has profoundly influenced the literary traditions of other Asian countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Not only was the Chinese script adopted for the written language in these countries, but some writers adopted the Chinese language as their chief literary medium, at least before the 20th century.

The graphic nature of the written aspect of the Chinese language has produced a number of noteworthy effects upon Chinese literature and its diffusion: (1) Chinese literature, especially poetry , is recorded in handwriting or in print and purports to make an aesthetic appeal to the reader that is visual as well as aural. (2) This visual appeal of the graphs has in fact given rise to the elevated status of calligraphy in China, where it has been regarded for at least the last 16 centuries as a fine art comparable to painting. Scrolls of calligraphic renderings of poems and prose selections have continued to be hung alongside paintings in the homes of the common people as well as the elite, converting these literary gems into something to be enjoyed in everyday living. (3) On the negative side, such a writing system has been an impediment to education and the spread of literacy , thus reducing the number of readers of literature, for even a rudimentary level of reading and writing requires knowledge of more than 1,000 graphs, together with their pronunciation. (4) On the other hand, the Chinese written language, even with its obvious disadvantages, has been a potent factor in perpetuating the cultural unity of the growing millions of the Chinese people, including assimilated groups in far-flung peripheral areas. Different in function from recording words in an alphabetic–phonetic language, the graphs are not primarily indicators of sounds and can therefore be pronounced in variant ways to accommodate geographical diversities in speech and historical phonological changes without damage to the meaning of the written page. As a result, the major dialects in China never developed into separate written languages as did the Romance languages , and, although the reader of a Confucian Classic in southern China might not understand the everyday speech of someone from the far north, Chinese literature has continued to be the common asset of the whole Han Chinese people. By the same token, the graphs of China could be utilized by speakers of other languages as their literary mediums.

The pronunciation of the Chinese graphs has also influenced the development of Chinese literature. The fact that each graph had a monophonic pronunciation in a given context created a large number of homonyms, which led to misunderstanding and confusion when spoken or read aloud without the aid of the graphs. One corrective was the introduction of tones or pitches in pronunciation. As a result, metre in Chinese prosody is not concerned with the combination of syllabic stresses, as in English, but with those of syllabic tones, which produce a different but equally pleasing cadence . This tonal feature of the Chinese language has brought about an intimate relationship between poetry and music in China. All major types of Chinese poetry were originally sung to the accompaniment of music. Even after the musical scores were lost, the poems were, as they still are, more often chanted—in order to approximate singing—than merely read.

Chinese poetry, besides depending on end rhyme and tonal metre for its cadence, is characterized by its compactness and brevity . There are no epics of either folk or literary variety and hardly any narrative or descriptive poems that are long by the standards of world literature. Stressing the lyrical , as has often been pointed out, the Chinese poet refrains from being exhaustive, marking instead the heights of his ecstasies and inspiration or the depths of sorrow and sympathy. Generally, pronouns and conjunctions are omitted, and one or two words often allude to highly complex thoughts or situations. This explains why many poems have been differently interpreted by learned commentators and competent translators.

The line of demarcation between prose and poetry is much less distinctly drawn in Chinese literature than in other national literatures. This is clearly reflected in three genres . The fu , for example, is on the borderline between poetry and prose, containing elements of both. It uses rhyme and metre and not infrequently also antithetic structure, but, despite occasional flights into the realm of the poetic, it retains the features of prose without being necessarily prosaic. This accounts for the variety of labels given to the fu in English by writers on Chinese literature—poetic prose, rhyme prose, prose poem , rhapsody, and prose poetry.

Another genre belonging to this category is pianwen (“parallel prose”), characterized by antithetic construction and balanced tonal patterns without the use of rhyme; the term is suggestive of “a team of paired horses,” as is implied in the Chinese word pian. Despite the polyphonic effect thus produced, which approximates that of poetry, it has often been made the vehicle of proselike exposition and argumentation. Another genre , a peculiar mutation in this borderland, is the baguwen (“eight-legged essay”). Now generally regarded as unworthy of classification as literature, for centuries (from 1487 to 1901) it dominated the field of Chinese writing as the principal yardstick in grading candidates in the official civil-service examinations. It exploited antithetical construction and contrasting tonal patterns to the limit by requiring pairs of columns consisting of long paragraphs, one responding to the other, word for word, phrase for phrase, sentence for sentence.

Chinese prose writing has been diverted into two streams, separated at least for the last 1,000 years by a gap much wider than the one between folk songs and so-called literary poems. Classical, or literary, prose ( guwen , or wenyan ) aims at the standards and styles set by ancient writers and their distinguished followers of subsequent ages, with the Confucian Classics and the early philosophers as supreme models. While the styles may vary with individual writers, the language is always far removed from their spoken tongues. Sanctioned by official requirement for the competitive examinations and dignified by traditional respect for the cultural accomplishments of past ages, this medium became the linguistic tool of practically all Chinese prose writers. Vernacular prose ( baihua ), in contrast, consists of writings in the living tongue, the everyday language of the authors. Traditionally considered inferior, the medium was piously avoided for creative writing until it was adopted by novelists and playwrights from the 13th century on.

Origins: c. 1400–221 bce

The oldest specimens of Chinese writing extant are inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells dating back to the last three centuries of the Shang dynasty (18th–12th centuries bce ) and recording divinations performed at the royal capital. These inscriptions, like those engraved on ceremonial bronze vessels toward the end of the Shang period, are usually brief and factual and cannot be considered literature. Nonetheless, they are significant in that their sizable vocabulary (about 3,400 characters, of which nearly 2,000 have been reliably deciphered) has proved to be the direct ancestor of the modern Chinese script. Moreover, the syntactical structure of the language bears a striking resemblance to later usages. From the frequent occurrences in the bone inscriptions of such characters as “dance” and “music,” “drum” and “chimes” (of stone), “words” and “southern” (airs), it can safely be inferred that, by the Shang dynasty, songs were sung to the accompaniment of dance and music, but these songs are now lost.

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Chinese Literature 1000 B.C.- A.D. 1890

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Chinese literature （ 3 ）

Aug 16, 2014

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Chinese literature （ 3 ）. Part One: Yuan Qu. In Chinese literature, Yuan Qu consists of Sanqu and Zaju. Qu became popular during the late Southern Song Dynasty, and reached its highest popularity in Yuan Dynasty, therefore it is often called Yuanqu.

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• great yuan playwrights
• whose emergence
• historical records
• vivid character portrayal

Presentation Transcript

Chinese literature（3）

Part One: Yuan Qu • In Chinese literature, Yuan Qu consists of Sanqu and Zaju. Qu became popular during the late Southern Song Dynasty, and reached its highest popularity in Yuan Dynasty, therefore it is often called Yuanqu.

Sanqu was a new poetic style popular in Yuan dynasty. Both sanqu and ci are lyrics written to fit a particular melody, but sanqu differs from ci in that it is more colloquial, and is allowed to contain chenzi ("filler words" which are additional words to make a more complete meaning).

Zaju is a drama form, reflecting the reality of the society and received warm welcome by the people at that time. Zaju opera was the first new force suddenly rising, whose emergence marked the maturity of Chinese opera.

1.1 The category of Yuan Qu Zaju Yuan Qu: Sanqu: 1)Santao 2)Xiaoling

There are two direct origins of Zaju in Yuan Dynasty: one is a storytelling and singing art form from the Song Dynasty to the Jin Dynasty-Zhu Gongdiao; the other is a playlet form that focuses on making fun-Zaju of Song Dynasty and performers' scripts of the Jin Dynasty.

Zaju of the Yuan Dynasty is evolved by inheriting characteristics of performers' scripts of Jin Dynasty, combining many features of Zhu Gong Diao and absorbing elements from other folk crafts. After its formation, Zaju quickly became popular in northern China.

Sanqu can be further divided into xiaoling and santao, with the latter comprising of more than one melody. Xiaoling is made up of a single piece of music. The lines are not uniform in length, but have certain format. Santao comprises over two pieces of music of the same gong diao. Some sanqu works are elegant and graceful, and some bold and incisive.

1.2 Four Great Yuan Playwrights Guan Hanqing : sobriquet "the Oldman of the Studio" (齋叟 Zhāisǒu), produced about 65 plays, mostly in Vernacular Chinese of the time, but nowadays only fourteen of his plays are extant, including: The Injustice to Dou E /Snow in Midsummer (感天动地窦娥冤) Saving the Dusty-windy /Saving the Prostitute /Rescued by a Coquette (赵盼儿风月救风尘)

His works reflected the spirit of a fighter and encouraged common people to fight against oppression . The characters in the plays were upright, courageous and rebellious. The Injustice to Dou E was his masterpiece. The Injustice to Dou E tells a tragic story of young woman named Dou E and has been listed as one of the ten great classical tragedies in China.

Ma Zhiyuan courtesy name Dongli (东篱), a Chinese poet and celebrated playwright Among his achievements is the development and popularizing of the new sanqu (散曲) lyric form of poetry. The poem "Autumn Thoughts" (秋思) from the book '东篱乐府' is the most widely known of his sanqu poems.

Autumn Thoughts Dry vine, old tree, crows at dusk, 枯藤老树昏鸦, Low bridge, stream running, cottages, 小桥流水人家。

Ancient road, west wind, lean nag, 古道西风瘦马, The sun sinking west, And one with breaking heart at the sky’s edge. 夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。 

Zheng Guangzhu Representative work: Qian Nu‘s Soul Fleeing with Her Lover （Chinese: 倩女离魂） Bai Pu Representative work: Pei Shaojun and Li Qianjun (Chinese: 墙头马上）

Part Two：Ming-Qing Novels • The Ming and Qing Dynasties were the prosperous periods in the history of Chinese novels. From the Ming Dynasty, novel as a literary form fully displayed its social functions and literary values. The Qing Dynasty was the period when classical Chinese novels started to fall after reaching the zenith and transit to modern novels.

Novels of the Ming Dynasty can be mainly divided into two categories, namely vernacular short novels and full-length novels. By subjects and contents, full-length novels of the Ming Dynasty can be generally divided into four types, namely historical novels, novels of gods and spirits, secular novels and legal case novels.

Novels of the Qing Dynasty were mainly created by literati. Although the literati borrowed ideas from historical and legendary materials, most of the works were based on the reality. They fully embodied the authors' wishes and became more and more mature in structure, narration and figure depiction.

It was in this period that the four great Chinese classical novels were written, namely,Journey to the West, Water Margin , Romance of the Three Kingdoms and A Dream of Red Mansions.

Journey to the West It was written by Wu Cheng'en of the Ming Dynasty. It is based on the true story of a Tang Dynasty monk who made a perilous overland trip to India to fetch back the Buddhist scriptures. Journey to the West, which depicts the story of Monk Tang and his disciples going west to seek for Sutra.

The influence of Journey to the West being so wide and lasting is largely because it models the Monkey King, the Pig Marshal, Monk Tang and Monk Sha, etc. into vivid figures with independent personalities and infectious power. Of these, the most talked about and best known is the Monkey King. He is an omnificent humanized monkey, mischievous and cute, knowing precisely whom and what to love or hate.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms • Luo Guanzhong, the author of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, based his novel on both folk tales and historical records of the conflicts between the kingdoms of Wei, Shu and Wu , established by Cao Cao, Liu Bei and Sun Quan, respectively. Written in the early Ming Dynasty, it was the first historical novel to appear in China.

Water Margin It was written at almost the same time as Three Kingdoms, was written by Shi Nai'an. It is based on folk tales about a band of rebels led by Song Jiang at the close of the Northern Song Dynasty. There are 108 heroes and heroines in the novel, which is a savage satire on official corruption and feudal oppression.

A Dream of Red Mansions It also named Tale of the Rock, has 120 chapters, of which the first 80 were written by Cao Xueqin, and the remaining 40 by Gao E. With the tragic love story of Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu as the main theme, the novel describes the decline of four feudal noble families. The novel is a treasure house of information about the way aristocratic families lived in the Qing Dynasty.

Strange Tales of Liaozhai • Strange Tales of Liaozhai is a well-known collection of short stories written by Pu Songlin of the Qing Dynasty. The work is called "the No.1 book about vixen spirits and ghosts". It is said that Pu Songlin ran a teahouse outside his home, offering tea free of charge to passers-by, from whom he gathered material for the novel in return.

Strange Tales of Liaozhai contains a total of 491 short stories, all of which are fascinating and colorful, with vivid character portrayal. A lot of the stories are about the worlds of human beings, ghosts and spirits.

The most well-known stories include Xiao Qian, Xi Fangping,and The Painted Skin etc. These stories are extremely popular and widely spread

Through the stories of vixen spirits and ghosts, Strange Tales of Liaozhai indirectly reflects the social contradictions and people's thoughts and wishes of the 17th century China.

Assignments 1 What are the historical reasons for the formation of Yuan Qu? 2 Please describe the artistic style of Yuan Qu and its main writers. 3 What’s your favorite one in the Ming-Qing Novels ? State some reasons.

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Chinese Literature 1000 B'C' A'D' 1890 - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Chinese Literature 1000 B'C' A'D' 1890

China is the world's oldest surviving civilization, lasting well over 3500 years. ... stresses freedom, simplicity & the mystical contemplation of nature ('tao' ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Know contentment
• And you will suffer no disgrace
• Know when to stop
• And you will meet with no danger.
• You can then endure.- the Tao Te Ching
• China is the worlds oldest surviving civilization, lasting well over 3500 years.
• Chinese history is generally divided into dynasties, family or group of people who reigned.
• Shang 1766 B.C.- 1122 B.C.
• Chou 1122 B.C.- 221B.C.
• Chin 221 B.C.-206 A.D.
• Within each dynasty were many small states however, they were united into one large empire.
• Poetry is a part of everyday life throughout the history of China.
• Poets have been among the most highly regarded members of Chinese society.
• 2nd 12th centuries A.D. the main Chinese poetic form was the shih (she)
• Even number of lines, each of which has the same number of words.
• Often expressed personal emotions.
• Many have brooding or troubled tone, but can express elation or contentment.
• Contrast between Chinese and Western modes of philosophic thinking
• Western philosophers seek out the being of things, the essential reality lying behind appearances
• Chinese principal the establishment and cultivation of harmonious relationships within their social structures
• Chinese thinking is far more concrete, this-worldly and, above all, practical.
• Chinese attitudes beliefs were shaped by 3 religious and philosophical schools
• Confucianism
• Tao- path or the way
• Stresses freedom, simplicity the mystical contemplation of nature (Tao).
• Force that controlled the universe.
• Beyond the scope of human concerns, but can see its workings by observing nature.
• Avoid human desires
• Not educating
• Not honoring men of worth or encourage cleaver to act
• Cause jealousy and greed
• Opposite of Confucianism
• How people act- moral behavior
• Social relations based on subordination family ruled by authoritarian father, state ruled by authoritarian king.
• Respect obey those with superior status.
• However, governed by the concept ren- with a loving attitude towards others.
• Tried to teach students to become true gentlemen- morally spiritually
• Must conduct oneself in a virtuous manner those in power serve as models.
• Heaven is the supreme moral authority, which dictates how one must live.
• To lead a moral life
• To be mindful and aware of thoughts and actions
• To develop wisdom and understanding
• Life is sorrow and sorrow is caused by desires
• Rid self of desires
• Does not claim to be God
• Attain enlightenment through meditation
• Solutions to our problems are within ourselves
• Beliefs are incorporated into poetry through symbols, imagery and language of Chinese Literature.
• Quietude and calmness is a central notion in Buddhist thought.
• Not to take the life of anything living
• Not to take anything not freely given
• To abstain from sexual misconduct and sexual overindulgences
• Refrain from untrue speech
• Avoid intoxication (losing mindfulness)
• The law that everything has a cause and effect
• Our actions have results
• Why handicapped, why gifted
• People responsible for their past and present actions

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