5g network essay

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5G, explained

Feb 13, 2020

Most Americans have yet to use a 5G-connected device, but the next-generation cellular network is already generating buzz. Ads and headlines tout a 5G revolution that will change the way people live and work, through unprecedented digital speeds, reduced lag, and better connectivity for a broader range of devices. Some say it’ll spur a fourth industrial revolution.

With experts expecting 5G to become widely available in the next few years, the full business impact of the network has yet to be seen. What’s clear is that it’s ripe with opportunity for fields as varied as entertainment, manufacturing, health care, and retail. Successful enterprises will tap 5G to boost “internet of things” applications, virtual and augmented reality, and larger-scale robot and drone deployments.

“What does this mean? It depends who you are,” said MIT electrical engineering and computer science professor Muriel Médard . For users, which includes most businesses, “it’s likely you’ll get a rich set of offerings, and you’ll get better coverage,” said Médard, who leads the Network Coding and Reliable Communications Group at MIT’s Research Laboratory for Electronics.

As the first 5G symbols begin to pop up on cellphones, it’s time for businesses to think about how to harness the possibilities. “If you’re a business leader looking to use this network to provide some new services for customers, or if [you] would like to create some new value that’s not possible today … all of this is possible with 5G,” said Athul Prasad, a student in the MIT Sloan Fellows program who is on sabbatical from Nokia, where he was the head of 5G business modeling and analytics.

Companies that embrace 5G early stand to gain, said Diego Fernandez Bardera, a principal consultant at Ericsson who focuses on 5G and the internet of things. Some 73% of 4G first-movers grew their market share after their 4G launch, and a 5G first-mover likewise will benefit, said Bardera, a graduate of the MIT Sloan Fellows program. “I urge organizations and the whole ecosystem, from industry partners to universities, to have discussions across business and operational domains to better understand how 5G will transform their industries.”  

Here’s what businesses need to know to set themselves on a course for 5G success:

From 1G to 5G

5G is the fifth-generation cellular network, as formally defined by global standards agencies . New networks have emerged roughly every 10 years since 1980, when 1G came on the scene with large cellphones that only made phone calls. Later, 2G introduced messaging, 3G brought access to the internet, and 4G, which emerged around 2009, brought a leap in data download speeds, allowing users to do things like stream movies on mobile devices.

The official definition of 5G specifies higher speeds and lower latency — the lag time between when a device asks for information and when it receives it, Médard explained. The network will use higher-frequency radio waves in addition to the range of frequencies already used, and will work with smaller, more closely distributed wireless access points instead of large, dispersed cell towers.

5G is also expected to include a suite of hybrid technologies that will facilitate seamless transitions between different Wi-Fi networks or from cellular networks to Wi-Fi, and allow networks to more easily take advantage of unused extra bandwidth.

5G should allow for higher connectivity — that is, more devices connected to a network — and significantly higher download speeds. Speed isn’t the only improvement, though.

Consistency will be key, Médard said. 5G will allow small, consistent amounts of data to be accessed on a regular basis. “If you have needs such as streaming, gaming, even more if you go to something like virtual reality, you don't need a huge amount of data delivered to you at once,” she said. “What you may need is a more modest amount, but reliably delivered, and delivered with shorter delays.”

Experts expect 20 billion connected IoT devices by 2023.

Augmented reality — overlaying virtual information over a live view of the world — and virtual reality both need reliable, low latency networks to be effective, which makes them prime use cases for 5G. (Beyond being inconvenient, high latency while using virtual reality devices can cause motion sickness.)

Shorter range radio waves and cell towers that cover smaller areas will also improve location tracking . That opens the way for businesses to use geolocation to their competitive advantage, though some advocates have pointed out it also raises privacy concerns .

Speedier and more reliable communication and reduced lag times will enable new IoT use cases that are more widely and easily deployed, according to industry experts. While some companies are already using connected sensors in the field, 5G is expected to bring the internet of things into the mainstream with new uses and massive connectivity.

Experts expect 20 billion connected IoT devices by 2023 — representing millions of usually low-cost devices with long battery lives that can transmit non-delay-sensitive data, Bardera said. 5G will also allow what’s called ultra reliable and low latency connectivity, which is required for critical applications like traffic safety, remote surgery, or precise positioning for industrial uses.

For firms, opportunities abound

Industries considered most likely to be transformed by 5G include media and entertainment, manufacturing, retail, health care, hospitality, finance, and shipping and transportation. And the new network stands to enable or improve technologies as far-ranging as holograms, artificial intelligence and machine learning, industrial robots, drones, and smart cities, buildings, and homes.

“When you think about 5G you should think, ‘Well, what doesn’t really work on 4G?'” said Nicola Palmer, senior VP of technology and product development at Verizon, who spoke on a 5G panel at the 2019 MIT Platform Summit .

For example, computer vision, augmented reality, and virtual reality for health care don’t work on 4G networks, she noted. “How do you really tie into those capabilities in a way that creates value for enterprise and consumers alike?” 5G is a key part of the answer. Bardera said organizations approaching 5G should first assess its potential in relation to their specific industry, business, and market. From there they can select and prioritize the most suitable use cases in terms of business impact, time to market, and investment required.

Some industries are already test-driving 5G internet of things ideas for business purposes. For example, in the oil and gas industry, a Houston telecommunications company recently partnered with Nokia to bid on bringing 5G to several oil and gas fields. Other companies are developing “smart harbors” in Germany and China that include automated ship-to-shore crane lifts and sensors with real-time traffic monitoring. A mobile company in South Korea is at work building a 5G infrastructure for a smart traffic system in Seoul. Ericsson has embraced new industrial IoT uses, such as increased assembly and testing efficiency at a plant in Estonia through the use of augmented and virtual reality, Bardera said. And Nokia and ARENA2036 have announced an automotive research partnership at a factory in Germany to validate 5G use cases. 

5G will also make it easier to upgrade facilities or establish new plants. “Factories tend to have a lot of wires, which limits their mobility,” said Prasad. Wired factories are costly to upgrade, he said, but those costs will diminish with wireless sensors.

In entertainment, a 2019 Deloitte Mobile Trends survey predicted 5G could have a large impact on digital entertainment, especially among younger consumers, who said they plan to use 5G to consume media with virtual and augmented reality and that they’d likely play more mobile video games using 5G. Virtual and augmented reality with 5G can be used to train surgeons, truck drivers , and other employees in high-risk professions, as well as for videoconferencing, improved online and physical retail experiences, tourism, and education.

And on the farm, 5G innovations include sensors that control a smart feeding system and open curtains depending on the weather. And a herd of dairy cows in rural England were given 5G-connected devices on their collars that connected to a robotic milking system.

One cutting-edge technology that won’t rely on 5G is autonomous vehicles, according to MIT senior lecturer Nick Pudar,  the former director of corporate strategy at General Motors Co. Pudar said vehicles must be able to make driving decisions without relying on external connections, which may or may not be available. But 5G connectivity will allow vehicles to collect data about car maintenance, road conditions, weather and traffic that can lead to higher quality maps and congestion planning, he said. 

When to expect 5G

A 5G forecast released last year predicted 5G connections around the world will grow from 10 million in 2019 to more than 1 billion in 2023.

5G is already available in limited areas in the United States and worldwide. Experts estimate that 77 service providers worldwide launched 5G commercially by the end of 2019, Bardera said, with coverage and availability varying by country or region. In South Korea, the world’s largest 5G market, there are more than 3 million subscribers, he said.

AT&T, Sprint, T-Mobile and Verizon, the four largest U.S. carriers, have all rolled out some   5G service to consumers, mostly in select areas of certain cities, and all of the carriers promise more is on the way.

5G devices are slowly coming out, with expensive 5G cellphones for sale. Industry experts predict that Apple could introduce its first 5G-capable phones in 2020. Major Android equipment manufacturers have announced flagship 5G mobile devices, with many already shipping.

73% of 4G first-movers grew their market share after their 4G launch.

5G also requires infrastructure, including the installation of new wireless access points that are closer together. A host of companies are also working on providing 5G hardware and equipment. The U.S. government has cited concerns that Chinese technology company Huawei, which is providing 5G infrastructure in several countries, could give the Chinese government a “back door” to the networks and access to data and information. The United States has lobbied other countries not to use Huawei, though the United Kingdom recently agreed to have the company build part of its 5G network.

There are other concerns, perhaps perceived, to overcome. Critics are raising alarms about radio waves causing cancer and other health problems. Some cities have resisted the installation of 5G poles, and politicians have introduced resolutions urging formal study into its health implications. But a widely cited study that says 5G might be harmful has been debunked .

5G will boost security in some ways, with encrypted data, segmented networks, and user authentication, but also has security vulnerabilities , including potential spying and attacks. The increase in connected devices also creates more targets and attacks on vital connected systems could become more chaotic and consequential.

Experts are estimating a widespread rollout between 2021 and 2024. “I think it’s dependent on forward-looking industries to lean in,” Palmer said. “The examples are out there … leaning in will dictate how fast it happens.”

Prasad agreed. “I think that by 2021 that's kind of the timeline where we are thinking that it would be getting more and more wide-scale,” he said.

What’s certain is that 5G is on the way — with 6G already waiting in the wings — which means businesses should start preparing for what it might bring. Just as Uber, Netflix, and Spotify were enabled by 4G’s use of data and streaming, new or established companies could prove to be the winners in a 5G world, according to Prasad.

“It’s kind of a low-risk investment,” Prasad said, pointing out that the mobile ecosystem enabled by 4G created around $4 trillion in new economic value. “I think 5G could create even more value.”

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CBSE Digital Education

Essay on 5G Technology | 5G Technology in India

This long essay on 5G Technology in English is suitable for students of classes 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, 11, 12 and also for competitive exam aspirants. Read and enjoy the complete information about the essay on 5G Technology .

All important information regarding the Essay on 5G Technology is discussed in the article. After reading this article, we got all the important regarding What is 5G Technology, How does 5G Works, Evaluation from First Generation to Fifth Generation, the Advantages and disadvantages of 5G Technology, and the Challenges of 5G Technology.

Essay on 5G Technology in English 800 Words

Introduction.

5G Technology Essay – 5G Technology is the next generation of mobile broadband that will eventually replace, or at least expand 4G LTE  connections. Long-term development (LTE) is a standard for wireless broadband communications for mobile devices and data terminals.

5G is a new revolutionary technology in the field of telecommunications.  This technology is set to play an unprecedented role in the field of communication in place of 4G in the future.  This technology started from the south is also being introduced in India, which will give great impetus to the important programs of India’s social, economic, defense, space, etc, and the development of the nation will be faster.

5G technology is the fifth generation of the Internet and is considered the fastest and most secure means of data transfer. Its speed will be more than about 1 Gbps, which is about ten times more than a normal wireless mobile phone. The 5G is much more powerful than its previous generations due to its high-speed data transfer and low latency.

How does 5G Work?

The transmission of the 5G network will not require any type of tower, but rather the transmission of signals through small cell stations in rooftops or electric poles.  These small cells are significantly more important because of the millimeter-wave spectrum.

Various state-of-the-art technologies under 5 G technologies, such as MIMO, TDD, etc. will be used.  Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) technology will provide downloading capability with an intensity of around 952 Mbps.

Evaluation from First Generation to Fifth Generation

• 1G Technology was launched in the 1980s and worked on analog radio signals and supported only voice calls.
• 2G Technology was launched in the 1990s which uses digital radio signals and supported both voice and data transmission with a Bandwidth of 64 Kbps.
• 3G Technology was launched in the 2000s with a speed of 1 Mbps to 2 Mbps and it has the ability to transmit telephone signals including digitized voice, video calls ad conferencing.
• 4G Technology was launched in 2009 with a peak speed of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps and it also enables 3D virtual reality.

Advantages of 5G Technology

Some of the important advantages of an essay on 5G technology are:-

• A committee on 5G technology was formed in India, which in its recommendation for an increase in the amount of spectrum available and a decrease in the value of spectrum in the initial allocation of 5G spectrum.
• 5G technology is expected to offer advanced mobile broadband that can meet high coverage requirements.
• If the 5G technology is successfully implemented in India, it will revolutionize the Indian telecom sector.
• This technology will accelerate the Digital India program of the Government of India, Make in India, and Ease of Doing Business. Apart from this, New India Mission, Smart City Project, Bharat Net Project, etc. can be made successful.
• The high data speed of the 5G Network might help cloud systems steam software updates, music, and navigation data.
• 5G will also facilitate the ecosystem for the Internet of Things.
• The 5G technology, called the fifth generation of the Internet, can be used to increase India’s GDP, digitize the employment generation economy, etc.
• 5G Technology will help in the country’s digital growth which will result in the rise of GDP and employment generation in the country.
• 5G technology will help to incorporate Artificial Intelligence into our daily lives.
• It is estimated that 5G technology will boost the digital economy in India, helping India achieve a $ 5 trillion economy by 2024.

Challenges of 5G Technology

Some of the challenges of the essay on 5G technology are:-

• According to information and communications technology experts, India lacks the appropriate infrastructure for 5G, and developing it is a challenge in itself.
• The proposed speed of 5G is brutal considering the inefficient technical support in most parts of the world.
• 5G connection is more expensive than the currently available network . 5G requires investors to invest more than $ 2000 billion annually, discouraging investors.
• Reliance Jio’s entry into the Indian telecom sector in 2016 has also led to a decline in revenue from other sector operators.
• The switch from 4G to 5G will be infrastructure intensive & the development of infrastructure for 5G is very expensive.

It is true that there are challenges related to infrastructure, investment, and health related to 5G technology in India right now, but the government should address these challenges as soon as possible and implement this technology in India. The introduction of 5G technologies in India, economic, socio-strategic, etc., will bring dynamism in all areas and the development of the country will be further strengthened.

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I hope you like this post “Essay on 5G Technology in India”. If you want to give any suggestions then comment below. Share this 5G Technology essay with your friends.

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Essay on 5G Technology

Students are often asked to write an essay on 5G Technology in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on 5G Technology

Introduction to 5g technology.

5G stands for fifth-generation wireless technology. It’s the latest innovation in mobile internet, promising faster speeds and more reliable connections than previous generations like 4G and 3G.

Benefits of 5G

5G can download and upload data much faster. This means quicker access to websites, smoother streaming of videos, and less lag in games. It also supports more devices, which is crucial as more gadgets become internet-enabled.

Applications of 5G

5G can revolutionize many sectors. In healthcare, it can support remote patient monitoring. In transport, it can enable self-driving cars. It can even make smart cities more efficient.

Challenges of 5G

Despite its benefits, 5G faces challenges. It requires new infrastructure, which can be expensive. There are also concerns about cybersecurity, as more devices will be connected to the internet.

250 Words Essay on 5G Technology

5G, or fifth generation technology, is the latest iteration in the evolution of wireless technologies. It promises to revolutionize the way we interact with technology, offering unprecedented speeds, low latency, and the ability to connect a multitude of devices simultaneously.

Unleashing Unprecedented Speeds

5G’s most touted feature is its speed. It is projected to offer peak data rates up to 20 Gbps, which is about 100 times faster than 4G. This speed will enable seamless streaming of high-definition content, and make downloading and uploading large files a breeze.

Reducing Latency

Beyond speed, 5G also aims to reduce latency, or the delay before a transfer of data begins following an instruction for its transfer. Lower latency will enhance the user experience in real-time applications such as online gaming, video conferencing, and autonomous driving.

Enabling the Internet of Things (IoT)

Perhaps one of the most significant impacts of 5G will be its role in enabling the Internet of Things. By allowing a vast number of devices to connect and communicate simultaneously, 5G will facilitate the growth of smart homes, smart cities, and industrial IoT.

While 5G technology is filled with promise, it also presents challenges, such as infrastructure costs and privacy concerns. However, if these can be overcome, the potential benefits of 5G could usher in a new era of technological advancement. In the end, 5G represents not just an upgrade in speed, but a transformation in the way we live and interact with technology.

500 Words Essay on 5G Technology

Key features of 5g.

One of the defining features of 5G is its ability to support a massive number of connected devices. IoT (Internet of Things) devices, from smart home appliances to autonomous vehicles, will be able to communicate seamlessly, fostering a more integrated digital society.

5G also boasts ultra-low latency, the delay between the sending and receiving of information. This is critical for applications requiring real-time responses, such as remote surgeries, autonomous driving, and real-time gaming.

Implications of 5G Technology

The implications of 5G extend far beyond individual consumer benefits. It’s set to revolutionize industries by enabling new applications and business models.

In healthcare, 5G could make remote patient monitoring and telemedicine more effective, reducing the need for physical hospital visits. In the automotive industry, the ultra-low latency of 5G could make autonomous vehicles safer and more efficient.

Challenges and Concerns

Despite its potential, the deployment of 5G also presents significant challenges. The high-frequency spectrum of 5G, while enabling faster speeds, has a shorter range and is more susceptible to physical obstructions, necessitating the installation of numerous small cells.

Privacy and security are other major concerns. With more devices connected, the risk of cyber-attacks increases, demanding robust security measures.

Lastly, there are concerns about the potential health impacts of 5G radiation, although current research indicates that exposure levels are within international guidelines.

5G technology, with its promise of high-speed connectivity, low latency, and capacity to connect a massive number of devices, is set to transform our digital landscape. It holds the potential to revolutionize industries and spur technological innovation. However, its successful implementation hinges on overcoming significant challenges, including infrastructure requirements, privacy, and security concerns. As we stand on the brink of this new era, it is crucial to navigate these challenges wisely to harness the full potential of 5G.

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• School Education /

Essay On 5g Technology: Free Samples Available for Students

• Updated on  
• Dec 29, 2023

Congratulations to the world on the evolution of technology; from the first general-public computer named INIAC in 1945 to 5g technology in 2022, technology has greatly improved and has eased our lives. 5g technology is the advanced version of the 4g LTE (Long Term Evolution) mobile broadband service. We have all grown up from traditional mobile top-ups to digital recharges. According to sources, 5g is 10 times faster than 4g; a 4g connection has a download speed of 1 GBPS (Gigabyte Per Sec) and 5g has 10 GBPS. Below we have highlighted some sample essay on 5g technology.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on 5G Technology in 250 words
• 2.0.1 Conclusion
• 3 Benefits of 5G
• 4 10 Lines to Add to Your Essay on Technology

Also Read: Short Speech on Technology for School Students Short Essay on 5g Technology

The fifth generation or 5g technology for mobile networks was deployed all over the world in 2019, with South Korea becoming the first country to adopt it on a large scale. In mobile or cellular networks, the service or operating areas are divided into geographical units termed cells. The radio waves connect all the 5g mobile devices in a cell with the telephone network and the Internet. 

5g is 10 times faster than its predecessor, 4g, and can connect more devices in a particular area. Not only this, it also introduces new technologies such as Massive MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output), beamforming, and network slicing. Before switching to 5g, make sure to remember that 5g is not compatible with 4g devices.

Also Read: Essay on Health and Fitness for Students

Essay on 5G Technology in 250 words

The fifth generation of networks is the 5G network and this network promises to bring faster internet speed, lower latency, and improved reliability to mobile devices. In India, it is expected to have a significant impact on several industries such as healthcare, education, agriculture, entertainment, etc.

5G carries a lot of features such as:-

• Higher speeds: – The 5G network will have wider bandwidth which will allow for more data to flow. Hence, it will result in higher download and upload speeds.
• More capacity :- 5G network, in comparison to 4G, will have greater capacity to hold more network devices. This is very essential as the number of network devices increases each day.
• Lower latency: – 5G network will have much lower latency. This is essential for many tasks such as video conferencing or even online gaming which is a known profession these days. 

Due to all these, a lot of things will have a positive impact. Connectivity will improve and enable even the most rural areas to become connected to the rest of the world. 5G technology will help revolutionise the healthcare industry in India in ways such as telemedicine, remote surgeries, real-time patient monitoring, etc. 

However, like any other innovation, 5G does come with some concerns. There are certain concerns regarding the security of the 5G network, hence Indian Government needs to ensure that this network is safe from all the cyber threats. Also, although not proven, there are some concerns regarding the effects of 5G radiation on health. 

There is no doubt that 5G technology holds immense potential for India. And although there are many challenges to its deployment, the Indian Government and other industry experts should work together to over come these challenges and make the most of this technology.

350 Word Essay on 5g Technology

How significantly technology has improved. 50 years back nobody would have imagined that a mobile connection would allow us to connect anywhere in the world. With 5g technology, we can connect virtually anywhere with anyone in real-time. This advanced broadband connection offers us a higher internet speed, which can reach up to two-digit gigabits per second (Gbps). This increase in internet speed is achieved through the use of higher-frequency radio waves and advanced technologies.

The world of telecommunication is evolving at a very fast pace. 3g connectivity was adopted in 2003, 4g in 2009, and 5g in 2019. the advent of 5G technology represents an enormous leap forward, promising to reshape the way we connect, communicate, and interact with the digital world. 

The 5th Generation of mobile networks stands out from its predecessors in speed, latency, and the capacity to support a larger array of devices and applications. 5g speed is one of the most remarkable features, which allows us to download large amounts of files from the internet in mere seconds. Not only this, it also allows us smoother streaming of HD content and opens the door to transformative technologies.  Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) experiences, which demand substantial data transfer rates, will become more immersive and accessible with 5G.

What is the difference between 5g and 4g?

The difference between 5g and 4g technologies clearly highlighted in their speed, latency, frequency bands, capacity and multiple other uses.

• The average downloading speed of 4g connectivity was 5 to 1000 Mbps (megabytes per sec). But with 5g, this speed increases 10 times.
• 4G networks had a latency of around 30-50 milliseconds and 5g reduces latency to as low as 1 millisecond or even less.
• 4G networks mainly use lower frequency bands below 6 GHz, but,  5g utilizes a broader range of frequencies, including lower bands (sub-6 GHz) and higher bands (millimeter waves or mmWave).
• 4g was well-suited for broadband applications like web browsing, video streaming, and voice calls. 5g is capable of supporting a large number of applications from smart cities, critical communication services, and applications that demand ultra-reliable low-latency communication.

Benefits of 5G

• Lower Latency: 5G Network will have extremely lower latency compared to that of 4G LTE. This will result in a much more smoother experience in terms of real time communication such as video conferencing or online gaming.
• Faster Speeds : 5G Network is expected to peak at high speeds of around 10 Gbps which is extremely high as compared to that of 4G LTE. This will result in high download as well as upload speeds and much smoother video streaming, etc.
• New Applications: Some applications that were not possible with 4G LTE will now be possible because of 5G such as remote surgery, augmented reality, etc.
• More Capacity: 5G bands can support Much more devices as compared to 4G LTE networks. This is extremely important as the number of connected grows everyday.

Also Read: Essay on Farmer for School Students

10 Lines to Add to Your Essay on Technology

Here are 10 simple and easy quotes on 5g technology. You can add them to your essay on 5g technology or any related writing topic to impress your readers.

• 5g technology is the fifth generation of mobile or cellular networks.
• 5g offers significantly higher download speeds, reaching several gigabits per second.
• 5g technology’s ultra-low latency is one of the most striking features, which can reduce delays to as little as 1 millisecond.
• 5G utilizes a diverse spectrum, including both lower bands (sub-6 GHz) and higher bands (mmWave).
• The increased speed and low latency of 5G support emerging technologies like augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR).
• It enables a massive Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, connecting a vast number of devices simultaneously.
• 5G is essential for applications requiring real-time responsiveness, such as autonomous vehicles and remote surgery.
• The deployment of 5G networks is underway globally, transforming how we connect and communicate.
• Smart cities leverage 5G to enhance efficiency through interconnected systems and sensors.
• As the backbone of the digital era, 5G technology is driving innovation and shaping the future of connectivity.

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Ans: 5g technology is the advanced generation of the 4g technology. It’s a mobile broadband service, which allows users to have faster access to the internet. Our everyday tasks on the internet will be greatly improved using 5g technology. 5g is 10 times faster than its predecessor, 4g and can connect more devices in a particular area. Not only this, it also introduces new technologies such as Massive MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output), beamforming, and network slicing. Before switching to 5g, make sure to remember that 5g is not compatible with 4g devices.

Ans: 4g technology has a download speed of 5 to 10 Gbps. This broadband service is 10 times faster than its predecessor, 4g.

Ans: 5g is an advanced version of the 4g connectivity in terms of speed, latency, frequency bands, capability, and uses. 4G networks had a latency of around 30-50 milliseconds and 5g reduces latency to as low as 1 millisecond or even less.

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With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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The WIRED Guide to 5G

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The future depends on connectivity. From artificial intelligence and self-driving cars , to telemedicine and mixed reality, to as yet undreamed technologies, all the things we hope will make our lives easier, safer, and healthier require high-speed, always-on internet connections. To keep up with the demand, the mobile industry introduced 5G —so named because it's the fifth generation of wireless networking technology.

5G brings faster speeds of up to 10 gigabits per second (Gbps) to your phone. That's fast enough to download a 4K movie in 25 seconds. But 5G is not just about faster connections. It also delivers lower latency and allows for more devices to be connected simultaneously.

As the fifth generation of cellular networks, 5G is a global wireless standard. All cellular networks send encoded data through radio waves. Radio waves have different frequencies and are divided into bands. Previous generations, like 4G, operated on low- and mid-band frequencies, but 5G can operate on low-, mid-, and high-band (also known as millimeter wave) frequencies. Lower frequencies can travel farther and penetrate through obstacles but offer relatively low speeds, while higher frequencies are much faster but have a limited range and struggle to pass through objects.

While 5G opens up a swathe of unused radio frequencies at the high end of the spectrum, it also encompasses new technologies and techniques for combining chunks of spectrum that are already in use. At the low end, 5G looks and feels very much like 4G.

Carriers have been building their 5G networks for a few years now, but they have adopted different approaches. All the carriers began by building 5G atop their existing networks, which provided lots of connectivity, but not at the high speeds associated with 5G. More recently, they have started building out new high-band 5G networks, but these are largely confined to cities or specific venues within cities. You can get a broad overview by using Ookla’s 5G map .

Verizon offers low-band 5G across the country, labeled as 5G Nationwide on its coverage map . Verizon offers mid-band 5G in many urban areas and high-band 5G in many cities, but the mid- and high-band coverage are lumped together and labeled 5G Ultra Wideband or 5G UW.

AT&T also offers low-band 5G coverage across much of the country and mid-band coverage in some cities, both labeled simply as 5G on its coverage map . AT&T’s high-band 5G is currently limited to a selection of venues, like stadiums, and is labeled as 5G+. Early in its 5G efforts, AT&T marketed its spiffed-up LTE network as "5G E" and was rebuked by the National Advertising Review Board for misleading customers.

T-Mobile offers low-band 5G across the country, labeled as 5G Extended Range on its coverage map . Its mid- and high-band 5G is labeled as 5G Ultra Capacity.

Ultimately, 5G availability and speeds are variable because 5G service is offered in three bands. Low-band, which generally operates below 1 GHz, can reach speeds of 250 Mbps. The trade-off for low-band’s comparatively slower speeds is a broad reach, which means carriers can leave more distance between towers using this kind of equipment.

Analysts call the mid-band of the 5G spectrum the sweet spot, as it has a broad geographic reach and is faster than low-band. Mid-band operates between 1 and 6 GHz and can achieve speeds up to 1 Gbps.

But to reach the top speeds associated with 5G, carriers need millimeter-wave (or mmWave) technology, which takes advantage of the high end of the wireless spectrum, operating at 20 GHz and up. mmWave can enable multi-gig speeds, but millimeter-wave signals are less reliable over long distances and easily disrupted by obstacles like trees, people, and even rain. To make it practical for mobile use, carriers must deploy huge numbers of small access points in cities, instead of relying on a few big cell towers as they do today.

Figuring out whether 5G is available for you , and in what form, requires a bit of detective work, but you will also need a device capable of handling a 5G signal.

Anyone wishing to take advantage of these new 5G networks needs a capable device. Most major phone makers offer 5G handsets now, but, as we’ve seen, 5G is an umbrella term. All 5G phones have low- and mid-band support (often labeled “sub-6,” as they operate at frequencies of 6 GHz and lower), but not all 5G phones are capable of high-band connections. If you want a smartphone that can take advantage of high-band (mmWave) networks, look for mmWave support.

You can find mmWave support in high-end phones like Apple's iPhone 14 Pro , Google Pixel 7 Pro , and the Samsung Galaxy S22 in the US. It’s worth noting that these same models are often sold without mmWave support in other countries.

Much of the buzz around 5G is focused on its potential. Since smartphones connected to 4G LTE can already stream high-quality video, you may be wondering what 5G brings to the table for regular folks. Aside from faster download speeds, lower latency benefits multiplayer and cloud gaming by boosting responsiveness. And 5G's higher capacity for multiple devices to be connected without issue also helps to keep us all online when we are part of a crowd, whether it’s a packed concert or a football game.

The stability and speed of 5G also promise improvements for driverless cars, remote-piloting drones, and anywhere else where response time is crucial. While tangible benefits today are limited, there is enormous potential for more cloud computing services, augmented reality experiences, and whatever comes next. But a real killer 5G app for consumers remains elusive. 

The US has been keen to claim a leadership role in worldwide 5G deployment, but so far it hasn’t fully succeeded. China-based Huawei is the world’s leading maker of 5G network equipment, and while its equipment is deployed widely, the company has faced scrutiny and even bans from Western nations for its alleged ties to the Chinese government. Other companies that make 5G equipment, like Nokia, Ericsson, and Samsung— none of which, notably, are headquartered in the US —may have benefited from the bans.

From a speed perspective, the US doesn’t appear in the top 15 nations, according to the UK-based research firm Opensignal , which found that South Korea had the top 5G download speed at 432.7 Mbps, followed by Malaysia, Sweden, Bulgaria, and the United Arab Emirates. Where the US did score highly was in 5G availability, with a score of 25.2 percent, meaning users spent over one-quarter of their time with an active 5G connection—an impressive result for a country the size of the US, and a sign that the rollout is gathering pace.

The first generation of mobile wireless networks, built in the late 1970s and 1980s, was analog. Voices were carried over radio waves unencrypted , and anyone could listen in on conversations using off-the-shelf components. The second generation, built in the 1990s, was digital—which made it possible to encrypt calls, make more efficient use of the wireless spectrum, and deliver data transfers on par with dialup internet or, later, early DSL services. The third generation gave digital networks a bandwidth boost and ushered in the smartphone revolution.

(The wireless spectrum refers to the entire range of radio wave frequencies, from the lowest frequencies to the highest. The US Federal Communications Commission, or FCC, regulates who can use which ranges, or “bands,” of frequencies and for what purposes, to prevent users from interfering with each other’s signals. Mobile networks have traditionally relied mostly on low- and mid-band frequencies that can easily cover large distances and travel through walls. But those are now so crowded that carriers have turned to the higher end of the radio spectrum.)

The first 3G networks were built in the early 2000s, but they were slow to spread across the US. It's easy to forget that when the original iPhone was released in 2007, it didn't even support full 3G speeds, let alone 4G. At the time, Finnish company Nokia was still the world’s largest handset manufacturer, thanks in large part to Europe’s leadership in the deployment and adoption of 2G. Meanwhile, Japan was well ahead of the US in both 3G coverage and mobile internet use.

But not long after the first 3G-capable iPhones began sliding into pockets in July 2008, the US app economy started in earnest. Apple had just launched the App Store that month, and the first phones using Google's Android operating system started shipping in the US a few months later. Soon smartphones, once seen as luxury items, were considered necessities, as Apple and Google popularized the gadgets and Facebook gave people a reason to stay glued to their devices. Pushed by Apple and Google and apps like Facebook, the US led the way in shifting to 4G, leading to huge job and innovation growth as carriers expanded and upgraded their networks. Meanwhile, Nokia and Japanese handset makers lost market share at home and abroad as US companies set the agenda for the app economy.

There's more to 5G than mobile phones; 5G technologies will also serve a great many devices in near real time. That will be crucial as the number of internet-connected cars, environmental sensors, thermostats, and other gadgets accelerates in the coming years.

5G is expected to help autonomous cars communicate not only with one another—a kind of “Hey, on your left!” set of exchanges—but also, someday, with roads, lights, parking meters, and signals. And 5G’s low latency promises to better enable remote surgeries, allowing physicians in one location to manipulate network-connected surgical instruments thousands of miles away (a capability the pandemic has made even more desirable). Medical providers may also be able to rely on 5G to rapidly transmit high-resolution images for use in diagnosis and treatment.

Manufacturers can use 5G networks to monitor production lines remotely and maintain videofeeds of their factory floors, or to feed data to workers wearing augmented reality glasses. Some companies are licensing their own bit of 5G spectrum and are replacing Wi-Fi networks with private 5G networks .

Even though 5G remains far from universally available, the telecom industry is already looking forward to the next big thing : 6G—the technology that will take advantage of areas of the wireless spectrum above 100 GHz.

• Why Airlines Are Fighting the 5G Rollout Airline companies want more time to prepare for the potential impact of 5G frequencies on crucial safety equipment.
• Why Almost No One Is Getting the Fastest Form of 5G A new report shows that US mobile customers are tapping into the technology’s speediest networks less than 1 percent of the time.
• Choosing the Wrong Lane in the Race to 5G FCC Chair Jessica Rosenworcel argues that by focusing on millimeter-wave technology, the US is taking the wrong path to 5G.
• How the Sprint/T-Mobile Merger changes the mobile landscape T-Mobile gained valuable 5G wireless spectrum as part of the deal.

Last updated December 2022.

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Essay on 5G Technology

Introduction.

The transmission of information between persons, equipment, or systems over a medium such as cables, radio, optical, or electromagnetic fields is called telecommunications. Telecommunications has risen dramatically recently, with technical advances resulting in enhanced efficiency, speed, and communication security. Adopting 5G technology is one of the most important developments in telecommunications (Yang et al., 2019). 5G is the fifth generation of wireless technology, and it is intended to deliver faster, more dependable, and more efficient communication services than its predecessors, 4G and 3G. The technology is built on standards that govern radio wave characteristics, frequency ranges, and network architecture. 5G technology uses numerous new approaches to improve communication speed and reliability, such as millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectrum, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas, network slicing, and edge computing. With its high-speed data transmission capabilities and low latency, 5G technology can change many sectors, from healthcare and manufacturing to entertainment and education. Although 5G technology has immense promise, it has also prompted privacy and security issues and ramifications for global competitiveness and the digital divide. This article describes 5G technology in-depth, future developments in the field, examples of corporations participating, regulatory concerns surrounding the field, and worldwide ramifications.

Background of 5G technology

In 2010, a group of different telecom corporations established the 3GPP. It was the beginning of the development of 5G technology. To specify the specifications of radio waves, frequency ranges, and network architecture, the consortium developed a set of standards for the 5G technology. Since then, 5G technology has experienced substantial growth, with major investments in the technology coming from businesses like Huawei, Qualcomm, Ericsson, Nokia, Samsung, and Intel.

The need for communication services that are both quicker and more dependable has been a driving force behind the development of 5G technology (Attaran, 2021). Millimeter wave (mmWave) spectrum, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas, network slicing, and edge computing are some of the innovations implemented in 5G technology. This will allow the technology to meet the requirements of various applications, ranging from consumer devices to industrial applications. 5G technology is designed to meet the demands of various applications, from consumer devices to industrial applications. The implementation of 5G technology has huge repercussions for the world, ranging from expanding the economy and increasing international rivalry to improved data protection and privacy (Wu, 2020). It will be important for governments, international organizations, and industry stakeholders to work together to address these issues and ensure that 5G technology is deployed in a way that benefits all countries and protects the privacy and security of users. This will require close collaboration between all of these groups.

In conclusion, 5G technology is a game-changer in the sector of telecommunications because it provides communication services that are quicker, more dependable, and more efficient than their predecessors. It is anticipated that 5G technology will continue to advance and play an important part in the future of communication. This is because technology can transform a variety of different sectors.

The technology involved in the area

The 5G technology is underpinned by a set of standards that outline the characteristics of radio waves, frequency ranges, and the structure of networks. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project is a collaboration of telecommunications firms responsible for developing the standards (3GPP).

Using several novel approaches inside 5G technology contributes to an increase in both the speed and dependability of communication. One of the most important methods is the millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectrum, which works at higher frequencies than conventional radio waves. Traditional radio waves operate at lower frequencies. This spectrum offers a wider bandwidth, enabling more data to be carried out within the allotted time. Moreover, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas are used in 5G technology. These antennas can send and receive several streams of data at the same time, which increases the capacity of the network as well as its overall efficiency (Jaaz et al., 2021). The 5G technology uses a network design known as network slicing, which makes it possible to create virtual networks tailored to the requirements of individual applications. This helps the technology achieve even greater performance improvements. This enables the customization of network services for particular use cases, such as low-latency connection for autonomous cars, ultra-reliable communication for industrial applications, and fast internet speeds for general users.

Last but not least, the implementation of edge computing is made possible by 5G technology. Edge computing enables data to be processed closer to the end user, reducing latency and improving the network’s overall performance. This method also makes it possible to design new applications, such as augmented reality and virtual reality, that call for real-time processing and minimal latency.

As compared to the technologies that came before it, 5G technology offers a tremendous leap forward in wireless communication because it enables communication services that are quicker, more dependable, and more efficient. Its primary characteristics, including the use of mmWave spectrum, MIMO antennas, network slicing, and edge computing, were developed to cater to the requirements of a diverse array of applications, ranging from consumer devices to industrial devices applications.

Description of 5G Technology

5G is the fifth generation of wireless technology and is expected to deliver communication services that are faster, more dependable, and more efficient than its predecessors, including 4G and 3G. A collection of standards that govern the properties of radio waves, frequency ranges, and network architecture serve as the foundation for this technology. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is a coalition of telecommunications firms responsible for developing these standards. This consortium comprises companies such as Ericsson, Nokia, Samsung, and Huawei. Using several novel approaches inside 5G technology contributes to an increase in both the speed and dependability of communication. Using the millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectrum, which works at higher frequencies than conventional radio waves, is one of the most important methods (Zheng et al.,2020). Traditional radio waves operate at lower frequencies. This spectrum offers a wider bandwidth, enabling more data to be carried out within the allotted time. Moreover, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas are used in 5G technology. These antennas can send and receive several streams of data at the same time, which increases the capacity of the network as well as its overall efficiency.

In order to provide a more in-depth explanation of what the 5G technology is and how it works, it is essential to understand the primary characteristics that set it apart from the wireless technology of earlier generations. First, the fifth-generation (5G) wireless technology is planned to function at frequencies far higher than its predecessors. This will allow it to accomplish significantly faster data transfer rates. Conventional radio waves, utilized in 4G and 3G technology, run at frequencies below 6 GHz (Dragičević et al., 2019). On the other hand, 5G technology works in the frequency range of 24-40 GHz (mmWave spectrum) and functions at lower frequencies below 6 GHz. This higher frequency range makes it possible to transmit larger quantities of data in a shorter length of time, which ultimately results in communication that is both quicker and more dependable.

Second, the multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas used by 5G technology contribute to an improvement in both the capacity and efficiency of the networks. MIMO antennas make it possible to send and receive several streams of data simultaneously, which helps alleviate congestion on the network and improves its overall performance. This method also makes it possible to install tiny cells, which can therefore be positioned closer to customers, enhancing coverage and capacity in places with a high population density.

Finally, 5G technology uses a network design known as network slicing, which makes it possible to create virtual networks tailored to the needs of certain applications. This enables the customization of network services for particular use cases, such as low-latency connection for autonomous cars, ultra-reliable communication for industrial applications, and fast internet speeds for general users (Zhang, 2019). Last but not least, the implementation of edge computing is made possible by 5G technology. Edge computing enables data to be processed closer to the end user, reducing latency and improving the network’s overall performance. This method also makes it possible to design new applications, such as augmented reality and virtual reality, that call for real-time processing and minimal latency.

Future Trends in 5G Technology

5G technology is the most recent wireless technology that intends to deliver communication services that are quicker, more dependable, and more efficient compared to those provided by its predecessors. It is based on a set of standards produced by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a partnership of telecommunications firms. These standards describe the characteristics of radio waves, frequency bands, and network architecture. It runs on these parameters.

Using the millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectrum, which functions at higher frequencies than conventional radio waves, is one of the most important improvements that 5G technology brings. This spectrum offers a wider bandwidth, enabling more data to be carried out within the allotted time. Moreover, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas are used in 5G technology. These antennas can send and receive several streams of data at the same time, which increases the capacity of the network as well as its overall efficiency ((Zhang, 2019). As we look to the future, the 5G technology can potentially transform many different sectors thanks to its ability to transmit data at high speed and with low latency. The application of 5G technology in the Internet of Things (IoT), a network of linked devices, sensors, and systems, is one of the most important phenomena. Implementing 5G technology may make it possible for various devices and systems to communicate in real time, resulting in improved automation and optimization of operations.

The development of virtual and augmented reality apps is yet another key trend associated with 5G technology. Thanks to the high-speed data transmission and low-latency capabilities of 5G technology, it is now feasible to stream high-quality video and other multimedia material to devices that support virtual and augmented reality (Dragičević et al., 2019). This will provide consumers with an immersive experience. This technology can potentially transform several sectors, including gaming, entertainment, and education. It will provide users with an unparalleled degree of involvement and engagement.

In conclusion, 5G technology is a game-changer in the sector of telecommunications because it provides communication services that are quicker, more dependable, and more efficient than their predecessors. It is anticipated that 5G technology will continue to advance and play an important part in shaping the future of communication due to its revolutionary potential across various sectors.

Companies Involved in 5G Technology

Several firms are working on developing and implementing 5G technology. One of the most significant investors in 5G technology is the Chinese multinational telecoms equipment and consumer electronics business Huawei. Huawei is one of the top corporations in this sector. Many nations, like China and the United Kingdom, already have networks that Huawei has installed using the 5G standard. They have been at the vanguard of the development of 5G technology and have been working on various 5G-enabled products, including smartphones, tablets, and home routers, amongst other things.

In addition, the American multinational semiconductor and telecoms equipment giant Qualcomm has significant holdings in 5G technology and is a major investor in the sector (Grimes and Du, 2020). They are one of the most prominent providers of 5G modems and have formed strategic alliances with several other businesses to facilitate the creation of products that are 5G-enabled. Its Snapdragon platform is a well-liked option among smartphone makers, and they have also been working on other 5G-enabled devices, including laptops and goods for the smart home market. Ericsson is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications business that has been developing and implementing 5G technology since its conception. The company is headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. Ericsson has formed strategic alliances with several of the world’s most prominent telecoms firms to build and roll out 5G networks in nations all over the globe.

Nokia is a Finnish multinational telecommunication, information technology, and consumer electronics business that has been active in developing 5G technology since the idea was first conceived. Nokia was founded in 1865 and is headquartered in Espoo, Finland. Nokia has created a variety of 5G technologies and solutions, including 5G radios and base stations, and has worked with several of the most prominent telecoms firms in the world to implement 5G networks everywhere in the globe. A multinational business based in South Korea called Samsung has been active in researching and developing 5G technology ever since it was first conceived. Samsung has created various 5G products and solutions, including 5G smartphones, modems, and base stations, and has teamed with several of the most prominent telecoms firms in the world to install 5G networks everywhere.

Intel is a global technology business based in the United States that has been actively contributing to the advancement of 5G technology ever since it was first conceived. Intel has created a wide variety of 5G technologies and solutions, including 5G modems and semiconductors, and has teamed with several of the world’s most prominent telecoms firms to create and implement 5G networks all around the globe. AT&T is a multinational American telecommunications firm based in the United States and has been actively engaged in the rollout of 5G networks in that country. AT&T has formed strategic alliances with several other businesses to produce 5G-enabled products and has started the rollout of 5G networks in several locations around the United States.

Overall, these firms and others are working together to accelerate the development and deployment of 5G technology, which is anticipated to have a big influence on a wide range of sectors, including education and entertainment, in addition to healthcare and manufacturing.

Regulatory Issues Surrounding 5G Technology

As a result of the fact that it is anticipated that the implementation of 5G technology would allow the flow of massive volumes of data between devices and networks, privacy and security concerns have been raised in response to these developments. One of the key causes for worry is the possibility that 5G networks would be hacked, which would risk the privacy and confidentiality of sensitive information. Hackers would likely target 5G networks as they become more popular to take advantage of any weaknesses inside the infrastructure. In response to these concerns, governments and regulatory agencies all over the globe are now working to put into place mechanisms that will protect the safety of 5G networks and their users’ privacy. For instance, the European Union has passed legislation that compels enterprises that deal in telecommunications to conform to stringent data privacy and security requirements. These policies have been put in place.

The possibility of using 5G technology for monitoring and tracking presents yet another key challenge for regulators in relation to this emerging technology. There are worries that 5G networks might be exploited by governments or other groups to monitor people’s actions, especially in countries with authoritarian regimes. These concerns are particularly prevalent in countries where internet access is restricted. Because of this, there have been demands for there to be more openness and accountability in the process of developing and deploying 5G networks. Several countries have also passed restrictions that prohibit using 5G technology in certain sensitive applications, such as military or defense-related operations. These regulations have been implemented to prevent the technology from being used to compromise national security. The fierce rivalry among telecom providers to develop 5G networks presents another regulatory challenge to 5G technology (Chen et al.,2022). As a result of this rivalry, concerns have been raised over the dominance of particular corporations and the possibility of anti-competitive activity. Concerns for a nation’s safety have led to the imposition of bans or limitations on the use of products manufactured by certain businesses, such as Huawei, in several nations, including the United States. This has resulted in disputes between nations and enterprises, which may affect the overall deployment of 5G networks worldwide.

The regulatory challenges surrounding 5G technology are complex and multidimensional. They will need constant coordination between governments, regulatory agencies, and industry stakeholders to guarantee this game-changing technology’s responsible development and deployment.

Global Implications for 5G Technology

The implementation of 5G technology will have enormous repercussions worldwide, especially in relation to economic expansion and the level of international rivalry. As a result of its capacity to transmit data at a fast speed and its low latency, 5G technology has the potential to give rise to brand-new business sectors and prospects, in addition to enhancing the operational effectiveness of pre-existing company sectors. For instance, the introduction of 5G technology may pave the way for the development of driverless cars, smart cities, and remote medical care, all of which have the potential to enhance patient outcomes while simultaneously lowering associated costs.

The rollout of 5G technology also has repercussions for international commerce and collaboration to consider. The rush to roll up 5G networks has ratcheted the level of competitiveness on the world stage, notably between the United States and China (Capri, 2020). Concerns have been made in the United States over China’s ability to dominate 5G technology. As a result, limits have been imposed on the usage of equipment manufactured by Chinese businesses such as Huawei. This has resulted in tensions between the two nations, and there are fears that the rivalry may result in the fragmentation of the worldwide market for telecommunications services.2ti

In addition, the introduction of 5G technology has repercussions for online safety and personal information confidentiality. Because of the proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices and sensors, there is a greater possibility that private and sensitive information might be exposed. Governments and international organizations are collaborating to design legislation and standards for 5G networks to ensure that these networks are safe and that users’ privacy is protected.

In addition, the rollout of 5G technology can narrow the digital gap between rich nations and underdeveloped ones. However, there are fears that the high cost of building 5G networks might widen the digital gap. This would mean that only wealthy nations would have access to the advantages of 5G technology. To solve this problem, national governments and international organizations are collaborating on developing legislation and financing mechanisms that will make the 5G technology available in all nations (Cohen and Fontaine, 2020). In general, the implementation of 5G technology has enormous repercussions for the world, ranging from the expansion of the economy and increased international rivalry to increased concerns about data privacy. It will be important for governments, international organizations, and industry stakeholders to work together to address these issues and ensure that 5G technology is deployed in a way that benefits all countries and protects the privacy and security of users. This will require close collaboration between all of these groups.

The implementation of 5G technology marks a significant step forward in telecommunications. 5G technology will provide communication services that are quicker, more dependable, and more efficient than their predecessors. Its primary characteristics, which include the use of mmWave spectrum, MIMO antennas, network slicing, and edge computing, were developed to cater to the requirements of a diverse selection of applications (Zhang, 2019). It is anticipated that the 5G technology will play a vital part in the future of communication and will change a variety of sectors with its high-speed data transfer capabilities and reduced latency as it continues to improve. Nevertheless, the deployment of this has given rise to concerns over privacy and security, and there is also the possibility of ramifications regarding global competitiveness and the digital divide. It will be essential for governments, international organizations, and industry players to collaborate to guarantee that the rollout of 5G technology will be carried out in a manner that benefits all nations and preserves the users’ right to privacy as well as their security.

In conclusion, 5G technology is a game-changing innovation in the sector of telecommunications because it enables communication services that are quicker, more dependable, and more efficient than those provided by its predecessors. It is anticipated that 5G technology will continue to advance and play an important part in the future of communication. This is because technology can transform a variety of different sectors. Huawei, Qualcomm, Ericsson, Nokia, Samsung, and Intel are among the businesses contributing to the research and development of 5G technology and its eventual implementation. In addition, the rollout of 5G technology has prompted worries about privacy and security issues, in addition to those regarding competitiveness and the possibility of anti-competitive activity. In addition, the implementation of 5G technology has important repercussions for the whole world, which range from the expansion of the economy and increased international competitiveness to improvements in data protection and privacy. Governments, international organizations, and industry players must work together to guarantee that the 5G technology is implemented in a manner that benefits all nations and protects the privacy and security of users. This can only be accomplished via collaboration.

Attaran, M. (2021). The impact of 5G on the evolution of intelligent automation and industry digitization.  Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing , 1-17.

Capri, A. (2020). Semiconductors at the heart of the US-China tech war.  Hinrich Foundation , 22.

Chen, H., Li, L., & Chen, Y. (2022). Sustainable growth research–A study on the telecom operators in China.  Journal of Management Analytics ,  9 (1), 17-31.

Cohen, J., & Fontaine, R. (2020). Uniting the Techno-Democracies: How to Build Digital Cooperation.  Foreign Aff. ,  99 , 112.

Dragičević, T., Siano, P., & Prabaharan, S. S. (2019). Future generation 5G wireless networks for smart grid: A comprehensive review.  Energies ,  12 (11), 2140.

Grimes, S., & Du, D. (2020). China’s emerging role in the global semiconductor value chain.  Telecommunications Policy , 101959.

Jaaz, Z. A., Khudhair, I. Y., Mehdy, H. S., & Al Barazanchi, I. (2021, October). Imparting full-duplex wireless cellular communication in 5G network using apache spark engine. In  2021 8th International Conference on Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Informatics (EECSI)  (pp. 123-129). IEEE.

Wu, X. (2020). Technology, power, and uncontrolled great power strategic competition between China and the United States.  China International Strategy Review ,  2 (1), 99-119.

Yang, P., Xiao, Y., Xiao, M., & Li, S. (2019). 6G wireless communications: Vision and potential techniques. IEEE Network, 33(4), 70-75.

Zhang, S. (2019). An overview of network slicing for 5G.  IEEE Wireless Communications ,  26 (3), 111-117.

Zheng, S., Hou, D., Wang, C., Zhou, P., Chen, J., & Hong, W. A 24.25–30 GHz radio frequency up‐down converter with harmonic distortions rejection for 5G millimeter wave radio channel emulator applications.  Microwave and Optical Technology Letters .

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essay about 5g technology

The Technological Marvel: A Comprehensive Analysis of 5G Technology

The advent of 5G technology represents a significant milestone in the evolution of wireless communication. This essay aims to provide a detailed and technical exploration of 5G technology, covering its key components, architecture, benefits, and potential applications.

Introduction:

The fifth generation of wireless technology, commonly known as 5G, promises to revolutionize the way we connect and communicate. Unlike its predecessors, 5G is not merely an incremental improvement but rather a paradigm shift in the realm of wireless networks. This essay will delve into the technical intricacies that make 5G a cutting-edge technology.

Key Components of 5G Technology:

• One of the defining features of 5G is its use of millimeter-wave frequencies, ranging from 24 GHz to 100 GHz. These high-frequency bands enable significantly higher data transfer rates compared to previous generations.
• 5G leverages Massive MIMO technology, which involves the use of a large number of antennas at both the transmitter and receiver ends. This spatial diversity enhances data throughput, reliability, and efficiency.
• Beamforming is a technique used in 5G to focus the transmission of signals in specific directions, creating more efficient communication links. This improves network capacity and coverage.
• 5G introduces the concept of network slicing, allowing the creation of virtualized, isolated networks tailored for specific applications. This enables the coexistence of diverse services with distinct requirements on a single physical infrastructure.
• The integration of edge computing in 5G architecture reduces latency by processing data closer to the end-user. This is particularly crucial for applications such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and autonomous vehicles.

Architecture of 5G Networks:

• The RAN is a critical component of 5G architecture, comprising base stations equipped with massive MIMO antennas. These base stations communicate with user devices and facilitate the transmission of data between devices and the core network.
• The 5G core network is designed to be more flexible and scalable than its predecessors. It incorporates technologies like network function virtualization (NFV) and software-defined networking (SDN) to enable dynamic allocation of resources and efficient network management.
• 5G integrates cloud services seamlessly, enabling a distributed and scalable network architecture. This facilitates the deployment of services closer to the edge, reducing latency and enhancing user experience.

Benefits of 5G Technology:

• 5G offers significantly higher data transfer rates, reaching multiple gigabits per second. This ensures faster download and upload speeds, enabling applications that demand massive data throughput.
• With reduced latency, 5G supports real-time applications such as augmented reality, virtual reality, and autonomous vehicles. This low latency is achieved through the combination of edge computing and optimized network architecture.
• 5G is designed to accommodate a massive number of connected devices, making it suitable for the Internet of Things (IoT) applications. This includes smart cities, smart homes, and industrial IoT.
• The use of advanced technologies such as beamforming and dynamic resource allocation enhances energy efficiency in 5G networks. This is crucial for sustainability and reducing the environmental impact of wireless communication.

Potential Applications of 5G:

• 5G provides a significant boost in data rates, making it ideal for delivering high-quality multimedia content, immersive gaming experiences, and other data-intensive applications on mobile devices.
• Applications that demand ultra-low latency, such as remote surgery, autonomous vehicles, and industrial automation, can benefit from the URLLC capabilities of 5G.
• 5G's ability to connect a massive number of devices simultaneously makes it suitable for applications involving a vast network of sensors and devices, such as smart grids and agricultural monitoring systems.

Challenges and Future Developments:

While 5G brings unprecedented capabilities, challenges such as security concerns, spectrum management, and infrastructure deployment remain. Future developments may involve the evolution towards 6G, exploring even higher frequencies, more advanced technologies, and novel use cases.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, 5G technology stands at the forefront of innovation in wireless communication, offering higher speeds, lower latency, and enhanced connectivity. The technical components and architectural advancements discussed in this essay underscore the transformative potential of 5G across various industries and applications, paving the way for a more connected and technologically advanced future.

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  Today’s mobile users want faster data speeds and more reliable service. The next generation of wireless networks—5G—promises to deliver that, and much more. With 5G , users should be able to download a high-definition film in under a second (a task that could take 10 minutes on 4G LTE). And wireless engineers say these networks will boost the development of other new technologies, too, such as autonomous vehicles , virtual reality , and the Internet of Things .  

If all goes well, telecommunications companies hope to debut the first commercial 5G networks in the early 2020s . Right now, though, 5G is still in the planning stages, and companies and industry groups are working together to figure out exactly what it will be. But they all agree on one matter: As the number of mobile users and their demand for data rises, 5G must handle far more traffic at much higher speeds than the base stations that make up today’s cellular networks.

To achieve this, wireless engineers are designing a suite of brand-new technologies. Together, these technologies will deliver data with less than a millisecond of delay (compared to about 70 ms on today’s 4G networks) and bring peak download speeds of 20 gigabits per second (compared to 1 Gb/s on 4G ) to users.

At the moment, it’s not yet clear which technologies will do the most for 5G in the long run, but a few early favorites have emerged. The front-runners include millimeter waves, small cells, massive MIMO, full duplex, and beamforming. To understand how 5G will differ from today’s 4G networks, it’s helpful to walk through these five technologies and consider what each will mean for wireless users.

Millimeter Waves

Today’s wireless networks have run into a problem: More people and devices are consuming more data than ever before, but it remains crammed on the same bands of the radio-frequency spectrum that mobile providers have always used. That means less bandwidth for everyone, causing slower service and more dropped connections.

One way to get around that problem is to simply transmit signals on a whole new swath of the spectrum, one that’s never been used for mobile service before. That’s why providers are experimenting with broadcasting on millimeter waves , which use higher frequencies than the radio waves that have long been used for mobile phones.

Millimeter waves are broadcast at frequencies between 30 and 300 gigahertz , compared to the bands below 6 GHz that were used for mobile devices in the past. They are called millimeter waves because they vary in length from 1 to 10 mm , compared to the radio waves that serve today’s smartphones, which measure tens of centimeters in length.

Until now, only operators of satellites and radar systems used millimeter waves for real-world applications. Now, some cellular providers have begun to use them to send data between stationary points, such as two base stations. But using millimeter waves to connect mobile users with a nearby base station is an entirely new approach.

There is one major drawback to millimeter waves, though—they can’t easily travel through buildings or obstacles and they can be absorbed by foliage and rain. That’s why 5G networks will likely augment traditional cellular towers with another new technology, called small cells.

Small Cells

Small cells are portable miniature base stations that require minimal power to operate and can be placed every 250 meters or so throughout cities. To prevent signals from being dropped, carriers could install thousands of these stations in a city to form a dense network that acts like a relay team, receiving signals from other base stations and sending data to users at any location.

While traditional cell networks have also come to rely on an increasing number of base stations, achieving 5G performance will require an even greater infrastructure. Luckily, antennas on small cells can be much smaller than traditional antennas if they are transmitting tiny millimeter waves. This size difference makes it even easier to stick cells on light poles and atop buildings.

This radically different network structure should provide more targeted and efficient use of spectrum. Having more stations means the frequencies that one station uses to connect with devices in one area can be reused by another station in a different area to serve another customer. There is a problem, though—the sheer number of small cells required to build a 5G network may make it hard to set up in rural areas.

In addition to broadcasting over millimeter waves, 5G base stations will also have many more antennas than the base stations of today’s cellular networks—to take advantage of another new technology: massive MIMO.

Massive MIMO

Today’s 4G base stations have a dozen ports for antennas that handle all cellular traffic: eight for transmitters and four for receivers. But 5G base stations can support about a hundred ports, which means many more antennas can fit on a single array. That capability means a base station could send and receive signals from many more users at once, increasing the capacity of mobile networks by a factor of 22 or greater .

This technology is called massive MIMO . It all starts with MIMO, which stands for multiple-input multiple-output. MIMO describes wireless systems that use two or more transmitters and receivers to send and receive more data at once. Massive MIMO takes this concept to a new level by featuring dozens of antennas on a single array.

MIMO is already found on some 4G base stations. But so far, massive MIMO has only been tested in labs and a few field trials. In early tests, it has set new records for spectrum efficiency , which is a measure of how many bits of data can be transmitted to a certain number of users per second.

Massive MIMO looks very promising for the future of 5G. However, installing so many more antennas to handle cellular traffic also causes more interference if those signals cross. That’s why 5G stations must incorporate beamforming.

Beamforming

Beamforming is a traffic-signaling system for cellular base stations that identifies the most efficient data-delivery route to a particular user, and it reduces interference for nearby users in the process. Depending on the situation and the technology, there are several ways for 5G networks to implement it.

Beamforming can help massive MIMO arrays make more efficient use of the spectrum around them. The primary challenge for massive MIMO is to reduce interference while transmitting more information from many more antennas at once. At massive MIMO base stations, signal-processing algorithms plot the best transmission route through the air to each user. Then they can send individual data packets in many different directions, bouncing them off buildings and other objects in a precisely coordinated pattern. By choreographing the packets’ movements and arrival time, beamforming allows many users and antennas on a massive MIMO array to exchange much more information at once.

For millimeter waves, beamforming is primarily used to address a different set of problems: Cellular signals are easily blocked by objects and tend to weaken over long distances. In this case, beamforming can help by focusing a signal in a concentrated beam that points only in the direction of a user, rather than broadcasting in many directions at once. This approach can strengthen the signal’s chances of arriving intact and reduce interference for everyone else.

Besides boosting data rates by broadcasting over millimeter waves and beefing up spectrum efficiency with massive MIMO, wireless engineers are also trying to achieve the high throughput and low latency required for 5G through a technology called full duplex, which modifies the way antennas deliver and receive data.

Full Duplex

Today’s base stations and cellphones rely on transceivers that must take turns if transmitting and receiving information over the same frequency, or operate on different frequencies if a user wishes to transmit and receive information at the same time.

With 5G, a transceiver will be able to transmit and receive data at the same time, on the same frequency. This technology is known as full duplex , and it could double the capacity of wireless networks at their most fundamental physical layer: Picture two people talking at the same time but still able to understand one another—which means their conversation could take half as long and their next discussion could start sooner.

Some militaries already use full duplex technology that relies on bulky equipment. To achieve full duplex in personal devices , researchers must design a circuit that can route incoming and outgoing signals so they don’t collide while an antenna is transmitting and receiving data at the same time.

This is especially hard because of the tendency of radio waves to travel both forward and backward on the same frequency—a principle known as reciprocity. But recently , experts have assembled silicon transistors that act like high-speed switches to halt the backward roll of these waves, enabling them to transmit and receive signals on the same frequency at once.  

One drawback to full duplex is that it also creates more signal interference, through a pesky echo. When a transmitter emits a signal, that signal is much closer to the device’s antenna and therefore more powerful than any signal it receives. Expecting an antenna to both speak and listen at the same time is possible only with special echo-canceling technology.

With these and other 5G technologies, engineers hope to build the wireless network that future smartphone users, VR gamers, and autonomous cars will rely on every day. Already, researchers and companies have set high expectations for 5G by promising ultralow latency and record-breaking data speeds for consumers. If they can solve the remaining challenges, and figure out how to make all these systems work together, ultrafast 5G service could reach consumers in the next five years.

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• Amy Nordrum–Article Author & Voice Over

Produced By:

• Celia Gorman–Executive Producer
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Special Thanks: IEEE Spectrum would like to thank the following experts for their contributions to this video: Harish Krishnaswamy, Columbia University; Gabriel M. Rebeiz, UCSD; Ove Edfors, Lund University; Yonghui Li, University of Sydney; Paul Harris, University of Bristol; Andrew Nix, University of Bristol; Mark Beach, University of Bristol.            

Excellent overview of 5 G. Looking forward to reading an updated status of 5 G since the publishing of this article.

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What is 5G?

Fifth time’s the charm: 5G—or fifth-generation wireless technology— is powering the Fourth Industrial Revolution . Sure, 5G is faster than 4G. But 5G is more than just (a lot) faster: the connectivity made possible with 5G is significantly more secure and more stable than its predecessors. Plus, 5G enables data to travel from one place to another with a significantly shorter delay between data submission and arrival—this delay is known as latency.

Here are a few big numbers from the International Telecommunications Union . 5G networks aim to deliver:

• 1,000 times higher mobile data volume per area
• 100 times the number of connected devices
• 100 times higher user data rate
• ten times longer battery life for low-power massive-machine communications
• five times reduced end-to-end latency

Here’s how it works: like all cellular networks, the service area of 5G networks is divided into geographic sub-areas called cells. Each cell has local antennae, through which all wireless devices in the cell are connected to the internet and telephone network via radio waves. To achieve its very high speeds, 5G utilizes low- and midbands on the radio spectrum  (below six gigahertz), as well as whole new bands of the radio spectrum . These are so-called “millimeter waves,” broadcast at frequencies between 30 and 300 gigahertz, which have previously been used only for communication between satellites and radar systems.

Cell phone companies began deploying 5G in 2019. In the United States, 5G coverage is already available in many areas . And, while previous generation 2G and 3G technology is still in use, 5G adoption is accelerating: according to various predictions, 5G networks will have billions of subscribers by 2025.

But 5G can do more than enable faster loading of cat videos. This new speed and responsiveness—and the connectivity solutions it makes possible—is poised to transform a wide variety of industries.

Learn more about our Technology, Media & Telecommunications Practice .

How will 5G be used?

To date, 5G will enable four key use-case archetypes , which will require 5G to deliver on its promise of evolutionary change in network performance. They are:

• Enhanced mobile broadband . The faster speed, lower latency, and greater capacity 5G makes possible could enable on-the-go, ultra-high-definition video, virtual reality, and other advanced applications.
• Internet of Things (IoT) . Existing cellular networks are not able to keep up with the explosive growth in the number of connected devices, from smart refrigerators to devices monitoring battery levels on manufacturing shop floors. 5G will unlock the potential of IoT by enabling exponentially more connections at very low power.
• Mission-critical control . Connected devices are increasingly used in applications that require absolute reliability, such as vehicle safety systems or medical devices. 5G’s lower latency and higher resiliency mean that these time-critical applications will be increasingly reliable.
• Fixed wireless access . The speeds made possible by 5G make it a viable alternative to wired broadband in many markets, particularly those without fiber optics.

How might 5G and other advanced technologies impact the world?

If 5G is deployed across just four commercial domains—mobility, healthcare, manufacturing, and retail—it could boost global GDP by up to $2 trillion by 2030. Most of this value will be captured with creative applications of advanced connectivity.

Here are the four commercial domains with some of the largest potential to capture higher revenues or cost efficiencies:

• Connectivity will be the foundation for increasingly intelligent mobility systems, including carsharing services, public transit, infrastructure, hardware and software, and more. Connectivity could create new revenue streams through preventive maintenance, improved navigation and carpooling services, and personalized “infotainment” offerings.
• Devices and advanced networks with improved connectivity could transform the healthcare industry. Seamless data flow and low-latency networks could mean better robotic surgery. AI-powered decision support tools can make faster and more accurate diagnoses, as well as automate tasks so that caregivers can spend more time with patients. McKinsey analysis estimates that these use cases together could generate up to $420 billion in global GDP impact by 2030 .
• Low-latency and private 5G networks can power highly precise operations in manufacturing and other advanced industries . Smart factories powered by AI , analytics, and advanced robotics can run at maximum efficiency, optimizing and adjusting processes in real time. New features like automated guided vehicles and computer-vision-enhanced bin picking and quality control require the kind of speed and latency provided by high-band 5G. By 2030, the GDP impact in manufacturing could reach up to $650 billion .
• Retailers can use technology like sensors, trackers, and computer vision to manage inventories, improve warehouse operations, and coordinate along the supply chain. Use cases like connectivity-enhanced in-store experiences and real-time personalized recommendations could boost global GDP up to $700 billion by 2030 .

The use cases identified in these commercial domains alone could boost global GDP by up to $2 trillion by 2030 . The value at stake could ultimately run trillions of dollars higher across the entire global economy.

Beyond industry, 5G connectivity has important implications for society. Enabling more people to plug into global flows of information, communication, and services could add another $1.5 trillion to $2 trillion to GDP . This stands to unlock greater human potential and prosperity, particularly in developing nations .

Learn more about our Technology, Media & Telecommunications  Practice.

What are advanced connectivity and frontier connectivity?

Advanced connectivity is propelled by the continued evolution  of existing connectivity technologies, as networks are built out and adoption grows. For instance, providers are upgrading existing 4G infrastructure with 5G network overlays, which generally offer improvements in speed and latency while supporting a greater density of connected devices. At the same time, land-based fiber optic networks continue to expand, enabling faster data connections all over the world.

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On the other hand, frontier technologies like millimeter-wave 5G and low-earth-orbit satellite constellations offer a more radical leap forward . Millimeter-wave 5G is the ultra-fast mobile option, but comes with significant deployment challenges. Low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellites could deliver a breakthrough in breadth of coverage. LEO satellites work by beaming broadband down from space, bringing coverage to remote parts of the world where physical internet infrastructure doesn’t make sense for a variety of reasons. Despite the promise of LEO technology, challenges do remain, and no commercial services are yet available.

How are telecommunications players grappling with the transition to 5G?

5G promises better connectivity for consumers and organizations. Network providers, on the other hand, are resigned  to higher costs to deploy 5G infrastructure before they can reap the benefits. This cycle has happened before: with the advent of 4G, telcos in Europe and Latin America reported decreased revenues.

Given these realities, telecommunications players are working to develop their 5G investment strategies . In order to achieve the speed, latency, and reliability required by most advanced applications, network providers will need to invest in all network domains, including spectrum, radio access network infrastructure, transmission, and core networks. More specifically, operators will increasingly share more parts of the network, including towers, backhaul, and even spectrum and radio access, through so-called MOCN (Multi-Operator Core Network) or MORAN (Multi-Operator Radio Access Network) deals. This is a 5G-specific way for operators to cope with higher investment burdens at flat revenues.

Some good news: 5G technology is largely built on 4G networks, which means that mobile operators can simply evolve their infrastructure investment  rather than start from scratch. For instance, operators could begin by upgrading the capacity of their existing 4G network by refarming a portion of their 2G and 3G spectrum, thereby delaying investments in 5G. This would allow operators to minimize investments while the revenue potential of 5G remains uncertain.

How will telecommunications players monetize 5G in the B2C market?

The rise of 5G also presents an opportunity for telecommunications players to shift their customer engagement. As they reckon with the costs of 5G, they also must reimagine how to charge customers for 5G . The B2B 5G revolution is already under way; in the B2C market, the value proposition of 5G is less clear. That’s because there is no 5G use case compelling enough, at the present time, to transform the lives of people not heavily invested in gaming, for instance.

But despite the uncertainty, McKinsey has charted a clear path  for telecommunications organizations to monetize 5G in the B2C sector. There are three models telcos might pursue, which could increase average revenue per user by up to 20 percent:

• Impulse purchases and “business class” plans . 5G technology will allow telcos to move away from standard monthly subscriptions toward flexible plans that allow for customers to upgrade network performance when and where they feel the urge. Business class plans could feature premium network conditions at all times. According to McKinsey analysis, 7 percent of customers  are already ready to use 5G boosters, and would use them an average of seven times per month if each boost cost $1.
• Selling 5G-enabled experiences . The speeds and latency of 5G make possible streamlined and seamless experiences such as multiplayer cloud gaming, real-time translation, and augmented reality (AR) sports streaming. McKinsey research shows that customers are willing to pay  for these 5G-enabled experiential use cases, and more.
• Using partnerships to deliver 5G-enabled experiences . When assessing customer willingness to pay for 5G cloud gaming, McKinsey analysis showed that 74 percent of customers  would prefer buying a 5G service straight from the game app rather than from their mobile provider. To create a seamless experience for customers, telcos could embed 5G connectivity directly into their partners’ apps or devices. This could greatly expand telecommunications organizations’ customer base.

How has COVID-19 impacted connectivity IoT?

For one thing, the pandemic has created the need for applications with the advanced connectivity that only 5G can provide. Among other things, 5G enables the types of applications that help leaders understand whether their workforces are safe and which devices have been connected to the network and by whom.

Advanced connectivity technologies like 5G also stand to enable remote healthcare , although, ironically, the pandemic has also eaten up the resources necessary to create the infrastructure to implement it.

During the pandemic, Industry 4.0 frontrunners have done very well. This illustrates the fact that digital first businesses are nimbler and better prepared to react to unforeseen challenges.

Learn more about our Healthcare Systems & Services  Practice.

How can advanced electronics companies and industrials benefit from 5G?

The 5G Internet of Things (IoT)  B2B market, and its development over the coming years, offer significant opportunities for advanced electronics organizations. 5G IoT refers to industrial use-case archetypes enabled by the faster, more stable, and more secure connectivity available with 5G. McKinsey analyzed the events surrounding the introduction of 4G and other technologies, looking for clues about how 5G might evolve in the industry.

We found that many companies will derive great value from 5G IoT, but it will come in waves . The first 5G IoT use-case archetypes to gain traction will be those related to enhanced mobile broadband, followed shortly thereafter by use cases for ultra-reliable, low-latency communication. Finally, use cases for massive machine-type communication will take several more years. The businesses best placed to benefit from the growth of 5G include mobile operators, network providers, manufacturing companies, and machinery and industrial automation companies.

The B2B sector is especially well placed to benefit from 5G IoT. The most relevant short-term opportunities for 5G IoT involve Industry 4.0 , or the digitization of manufacturing and other production processes. The Industry 4.0 segment will account for sales of about 22 million 5G IoT units by 2030, with most applications related to manufacturing.

In order to take advantage of the opportunity, advanced electronics companies should look now to revamping their strategies . In the short-term, they should focus on B2B cases that are similar to those now being deployed in the B2C sector. Looking ahead, they should shift their focus toward developing hardware and software tailored to specific applications. But expanding the business field is always something that should be done with great care and consideration.

How will 5G impact the manufacturing industry?

There are five potential applications that are particularly relevant  for manufacturing organizations:

• Cloud control of machines . In the past, automation of machines in factories has relied on controllers that were physically installed on or near machines, which would then send information to computer networks. With 5G, this monitoring can in theory be done in the cloud, although these remain edge cases for now.
• Augmented reality . Seamless AR made possible by 5G connectivity will ultimately replace standard operating procedures currently on paper or video. These will help shop-floor workers undertake advanced tasks without waiting for specialists.
• Perceptive AI eyes on the factory floor . 5G will allow for live video analytics based on real-time video data streaming to the cloud.
• High-speed decisioning. The best-run factories rely on massive data lakes to make decisions. 5G accelerates the decision-cycle time, allowing massive amounts of data to be collected, cleaned, and analyzed in close to real time.
• Shop-floor IoTs . The addition of sensors to machines on factory floors means more data than ever before. The speeds made possible by 5G will allow for the operationalization of these new data.

Learn more about our Operations  Practice.

For a more in-depth exploration of these topics, see McKinsey’s Technology, Media & Telecommunications Practice. Also check out 5G-related job opportunities if you’re interested in working at McKinsey.

Articles referenced:

• “ Unlocking the value of 5G in the B2C marketplace ,” November 5, 2021, Ferry Grijpink , Jesper Larsson, Alexandre Ménard , and Konstantin Pell
• “ Connected world: An evolution in connectivity beyond the 5G revolution ,” February 20, 2020, Ferry Grijpink , Eric Kutcher , Alexandre Ménard , Sree Ramaswamy, Davide Schiavotto , James Manyika , Michael Chui , Rob Hamill, and Emir Okan
• The 5G era: New Horizons for advanced electronics in industrial companies , February 21, 2020, Ondrej Burkacky , Stephanie Lingemann, Alexander Hoffmann, and Markus Simon
• “ Five ways that 5G will revolutionize manufacturing ,” October 18, 2019, Enno de Boer , Sid Khanna , Andy Luse , Rahul Shahani , and Stephen Creasy
• “ Cutting through the 5G hype: Survey shows telcos’ nuanced views ,” February 13, 2019, Ferry Grijpink , Tobias Härlin, Harrison Lung, and Alexandre Ménard
• “ The road to 5G: The inevitable growth of infrastructure cost ,” February 23, 2018, Ferry Grijpink , Alexandre Ménard , Halldor Sigurdsson , and Nemanja Vucevic
• “ Are you ready for 5G? ,” February 22, 2018, Mark Collins, Arnab Das, Alexandre Ménard , and Dev Patel

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Essay on 5G Technology | 500+ Words

In today’s fast-paced world, technology continues to advance at an astonishing rate. One of the most groundbreaking technological advancements in recent years is 5G technology. 5G, short for fifth-generation wireless technology, promises to revolutionize the way we connect, communicate, and live our lives. In this essay, I will argue for the importance and benefits of 5G technology. By exploring its potential, applications, and impact on various aspects of our lives, I aim to demonstrate why 5G technology is a game-changer for the future.

Understanding 5G Technology

To appreciate the significance of 5G technology, it’s essential to understand what it is and how it differs from its predecessors. 5G is the fifth generation of wireless technology, succeeding 4G (fourth generation). Unlike 4G, which primarily focused on mobile internet, 5G is designed to enable a wide range of applications beyond just smartphones. It offers faster data speeds, lower latency, and the ability to connect a vast number of devices simultaneously.

Lightning-Fast Speeds

One of the most remarkable features of 5G technology is its incredible speed. With 5G, users can expect download and upload speeds that are exponentially faster than what 4G offers. This means that streaming high-definition videos, downloading large files, and even online gaming will become seamless and virtually lag-free. These lightning-fast speeds will greatly enhance our digital experiences.

Low Latency

Low latency, or the delay in data transmission, is another key benefit of 5G technology. With 5G, data can be sent and received almost instantaneously. This is especially important for applications that require real-time responsiveness, such as autonomous vehicles, remote surgery, and augmented reality experiences. Reduced latency ensures that critical tasks are performed swiftly and accurately.

Connectivity for the Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things, or IoT, refers to the network of interconnected devices and objects that communicate and exchange data. 5G is a game-changer for IoT as it provides the necessary infrastructure to connect billions of devices seamlessly. This has far-reaching implications for smart homes, smart cities, and industries like healthcare, agriculture, and manufacturing, where IoT can improve efficiency and productivity.

Advancing Healthcare

5G technology has the potential to transform healthcare in numerous ways. Telemedicine, for instance, becomes more accessible and efficient with 5G, allowing patients to consult with healthcare professionals remotely. Additionally, the low latency of 5G enables remote surgeries performed by robotic systems, connecting doctors and patients across great distances in real time.

Smart Cities and Urban Planning

Cities around the world are embracing the concept of smart cities, where technology is used to enhance the quality of life for residents. 5G technology plays a vital role in this endeavor. It enables smart infrastructure, such as traffic management systems, waste management, and energy-efficient lighting. These advancements lead to reduced congestion, cleaner environments, and better resource management in urban areas.

Education and Remote Learning

5G technology also has a significant impact on education. With faster internet speeds and reduced latency, students can access high-quality educational content and participate in immersive virtual classrooms. This is particularly important in situations like the COVID-19 pandemic, where remote learning has become a necessity.

Job Creation and Economic Growth

The rollout of 5G technology creates jobs and drives economic growth. It requires the deployment of new infrastructure, the development of 5G-compatible devices, and the expansion of network services. These activities contribute to job creation and stimulate economic activity in various sectors.

Conclusion of Essay on 5G Technology

In conclusion, 5G technology is a transformative force that holds the potential to revolutionize how we live, work, and connect with the world around us. With its lightning-fast speeds, low latency, and support for the Internet of Things, 5G promises to usher in a new era of innovation and convenience. It has the power to advance fields such as healthcare, education, and urban planning while also driving economic growth and job creation. As we embrace this cutting-edge technology, we should recognize the profound impact it will have on our lives and society as a whole. 5G technology is not just the next step in wireless communication; it is a giant leap towards a more connected and technologically advanced future.

Also Check: List of 500+ Topics for Writing Essay

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Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review

Ramraj dangi.

1 School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University Bhopal, Bhopal 466114, India; [email protected] (R.D.); [email protected] (P.L.)

Praveen Lalwani

Gaurav choudhary.

2 Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark; moc.liamg@7777yrahduohcvaruag

3 Department of Information Security Engineering, Soonchunhyang University, Asan-si 31538, Korea

Giovanni Pau

4 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy; [email protected]

Associated Data

Not applicable.

In wireless communication, Fifth Generation (5G) Technology is a recent generation of mobile networks. In this paper, evaluations in the field of mobile communication technology are presented. In each evolution, multiple challenges were faced that were captured with the help of next-generation mobile networks. Among all the previously existing mobile networks, 5G provides a high-speed internet facility, anytime, anywhere, for everyone. 5G is slightly different due to its novel features such as interconnecting people, controlling devices, objects, and machines. 5G mobile system will bring diverse levels of performance and capability, which will serve as new user experiences and connect new enterprises. Therefore, it is essential to know where the enterprise can utilize the benefits of 5G. In this research article, it was observed that extensive research and analysis unfolds different aspects, namely, millimeter wave (mmWave), massive multiple-input and multiple-output (Massive-MIMO), small cell, mobile edge computing (MEC), beamforming, different antenna technology, etc. This article’s main aim is to highlight some of the most recent enhancements made towards the 5G mobile system and discuss its future research objectives.

1. Introduction

Most recently, in three decades, rapid growth was marked in the field of wireless communication concerning the transition of 1G to 4G [ 1 , 2 ]. The main motto behind this research was the requirements of high bandwidth and very low latency. 5G provides a high data rate, improved quality of service (QoS), low-latency, high coverage, high reliability, and economically affordable services. 5G delivers services categorized into three categories: (1) Extreme mobile broadband (eMBB). It is a nonstandalone architecture that offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, moderate latency, UltraHD streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality (AR/VR) media, and many more. (2) Massive machine type communication (eMTC), 3GPP releases it in its 13th specification. It provides long-range and broadband machine-type communication at a very cost-effective price with less power consumption. eMTC brings a high data rate service, low power, extended coverage via less device complexity through mobile carriers for IoT applications. (3) ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) offers low-latency and ultra-high reliability, rich quality of service (QoS), which is not possible with traditional mobile network architecture. URLLC is designed for on-demand real-time interaction such as remote surgery, vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication, industry 4.0, smart grids, intelligent transport system, etc. [ 3 ].

1.1. Evolution from 1G to 5G

First generation (1G): 1G cell phone was launched between the 1970s and 80s, based on analog technology, which works just like a landline phone. It suffers in various ways, such as poor battery life, voice quality, and dropped calls. In 1G, the maximum achievable speed was 2.4 Kbps.

Second Generation (2G): In 2G, the first digital system was offered in 1991, providing improved mobile voice communication over 1G. In addition, Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Global System for Mobile (GSM) concepts were also discussed. In 2G, the maximum achievable speed was 1 Mpbs.

Third Generation (3G): When technology ventured from 2G GSM frameworks into 3G universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) framework, users encountered higher system speed and quicker download speed making constant video calls. 3G was the first mobile broadband system that was formed to provide the voice with some multimedia. The technology behind 3G was high-speed packet access (HSPA/HSPA+). 3G used MIMO for multiplying the power of the wireless network, and it also used packet switching for fast data transmission.

Fourth Generation (4G): It is purely mobile broadband standard. In digital mobile communication, it was observed information rate that upgraded from 20 to 60 Mbps in 4G [ 4 ]. It works on LTE and WiMAX technologies, as well as provides wider bandwidth up to 100 Mhz. It was launched in 2010.

Fourth Generation LTE-A (4.5G): It is an advanced version of standard 4G LTE. LTE-A uses MIMO technology to combine multiple antennas for both transmitters as well as a receiver. Using MIMO, multiple signals and multiple antennas can work simultaneously, making LTE-A three times faster than standard 4G. LTE-A offered an improved system limit, decreased deferral in the application server, access triple traffic (Data, Voice, and Video) wirelessly at any time anywhere in the world.LTE-A delivers speeds of over 42 Mbps and up to 90 Mbps.

Fifth Generation (5G): 5G is a pillar of digital transformation; it is a real improvement on all the previous mobile generation networks. 5G brings three different services for end user like Extreme mobile broadband (eMBB). It offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, moderate latency, UltraHD streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality (AR/VR) media, and many more. Massive machine type communication (eMTC), it provides long-range and broadband machine-type communication at a very cost-effective price with less power consumption. eMTC brings a high data rate service, low power, extended coverage via less device complexity through mobile carriers for IoT applications. Ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) offers low-latency and ultra-high reliability, rich quality of service (QoS), which is not possible with traditional mobile network architecture. URLLC is designed for on-demand real-time interaction such as remote surgery, vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication, industry 4.0, smart grids, intelligent transport system, etc. 5G faster than 4G and offers remote-controlled operation over a reliable network with zero delays. It provides down-link maximum throughput of up to 20 Gbps. In addition, 5G also supports 4G WWWW (4th Generation World Wide Wireless Web) [ 5 ] and is based on Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) protocol. 5G provides unlimited internet connection at your convenience, anytime, anywhere with extremely high speed, high throughput, low-latency, higher reliability and scalability, and energy-efficient mobile communication technology [ 6 ]. 5G mainly divided in two parts 6 GHz 5G and Millimeter wave(mmWave) 5G.

6 GHz is a mid frequency band which works as a mid point between capacity and coverage to offer perfect environment for 5G connectivity. 6 GHz spectrum will provide high bandwidth with improved network performance. It offers continuous channels that will reduce the need for network densification when mid-band spectrum is not available and it makes 5G connectivity affordable at anytime, anywhere for everyone.

mmWave is an essential technology of 5G network which build high performance network. 5G mmWave offer diverse services that is why all network providers should add on this technology in their 5G deployment planning. There are lots of service providers who deployed 5G mmWave, and their simulation result shows that 5G mmwave is a far less used spectrum. It provides very high speed wireless communication and it also offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next generation mobile network.

The evolution of wireless mobile technologies are presented in Table 1 . The abbreviations used in this paper are mentioned in Table 2 .

Summary of Mobile Technology.

Table of Notations and Abbreviations.

1.2. Key Contributions

The objective of this survey is to provide a detailed guide of 5G key technologies, methods to researchers, and to help with understanding how the recent works addressed 5G problems and developed solutions to tackle the 5G challenges; i.e., what are new methods that must be applied and how can they solve problems? Highlights of the research article are as follows.

• This survey focused on the recent trends and development in the era of 5G and novel contributions by the researcher community and discussed technical details on essential aspects of the 5G advancement.
• In this paper, the evolution of the mobile network from 1G to 5G is presented. In addition, the growth of mobile communication under different attributes is also discussed.
• This paper covers the emerging applications and research groups working on 5G & different research areas in 5G wireless communication network with a descriptive taxonomy.
• This survey discusses the current vision of the 5G networks, advantages, applications, key technologies, and key features. Furthermore, machine learning prospects are also explored with the emerging requirements in the 5G era. The article also focused on technical aspects of 5G IoT Based approaches and optimization techniques for 5G.
• we provide an extensive overview and recent advancement of emerging technologies of 5G mobile network, namely, MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), mmWave, Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning (ML), and optimization. Also, a technical summary is discussed by highlighting the context of current approaches and corresponding challenges.
• Security challenges and considerations while developing 5G technology are discussed.
• Finally, the paper concludes with the future directives.

The existing survey focused on architecture, key concepts, and implementation challenges and issues. In contrast, this survey covers the state-of-the-art techniques as well as corresponding recent novel developments by researchers. Various recent significant papers are discussed with the key technologies accelerating the development and production of 5G products.

2. Existing Surveys and Their Applicability

In this paper, a detailed survey on various technologies of 5G networks is presented. Various researchers have worked on different technologies of 5G networks. In this section, Table 3 gives a tabular representation of existing surveys of 5G networks. Massive MIMO, NOMA, small cell, mmWave, beamforming, and MEC are the six main pillars that helped to implement 5G networks in real life.

A comparative overview of existing surveys on different technologies of 5G networks.

2.1. Limitations of Existing Surveys

The existing survey focused on architecture, key concepts, and implementation challenges and issues. The numerous current surveys focused on various 5G technologies with different parameters, and the authors did not cover all the technologies of the 5G network in detail with challenges and recent advancements. Few authors worked on MIMO (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access) NOMA, MEC, small cell technologies. In contrast, some others worked on beamforming, Millimeter-wave (mmWave). But the existing survey did not cover all the technologies of the 5G network from a research and advancement perspective. No detailed survey is available in the market covering all the 5G network technologies and currently published research trade-offs. So, our main aim is to give a detailed study of all the technologies working on the 5G network. In contrast, this survey covers the state-of-the-art techniques as well as corresponding recent novel developments by researchers. Various recent significant papers are discussed with the key technologies accelerating the development and production of 5G products. This survey article collected key information about 5G technology and recent advancements, and it can be a kind of a guide for the reader. This survey provides an umbrella approach to bring multiple solutions and recent improvements in a single place to accelerate the 5G research with the latest key enabling solutions and reviews. A systematic layout representation of the survey in Figure 1 . We provide a state-of-the-art comparative overview of the existing surveys on different technologies of 5G networks in Table 3 .

Systematic layout representation of survey.

2.2. Article Organization

This article is organized under the following sections. Section 2 presents existing surveys and their applicability. In Section 3 , the preliminaries of 5G technology are presented. In Section 4 , recent advances of 5G technology based on Massive MIMO, NOMA, Millimeter Wave, 5G with IoT, machine learning for 5G, and Optimization in 5G are provided. In Section 5 , a description of novel 5G features over 4G is provided. Section 6 covered all the security concerns of the 5G network. Section 7 , 5G technology based on above-stated challenges summarize in tabular form. Finally, Section 8 and Section 9 conclude the study, which paves the path for future research.

3. Preliminary Section

3.1. emerging 5g paradigms and its features.

5G provides very high speed, low latency, and highly salable connectivity between multiple devices and IoT worldwide. 5G will provide a very flexible model to develop a modern generation of applications and industry goals [ 26 , 27 ]. There are many services offered by 5G network architecture are stated below:

Massive machine to machine communications: 5G offers novel, massive machine-to-machine communications [ 28 ], also known as the IoT [ 29 ], that provide connectivity between lots of machines without any involvement of humans. This service enhances the applications of 5G and provides connectivity between agriculture, construction, and industries [ 30 ].

Ultra-reliable low latency communications (URLLC): This service offers real-time management of machines, high-speed vehicle-to-vehicle connectivity, industrial connectivity and security principles, and highly secure transport system, and multiple autonomous actions. Low latency communications also clear up a different area where remote medical care, procedures, and operation are all achievable [ 31 ].

Enhanced mobile broadband: Enhance mobile broadband is an important use case of 5G system, which uses massive MIMO antenna, mmWave, beamforming techniques to offer very high-speed connectivity across a wide range of areas [ 32 ].

For communities: 5G provides a very flexible internet connection between lots of machines to make smart homes, smart schools, smart laboratories, safer and smart automobiles, and good health care centers [ 33 ].

For businesses and industry: As 5G works on higher spectrum ranges from 24 to 100 GHz. This higher frequency range provides secure low latency communication and high-speed wireless connectivity between IoT devices and industry 4.0, which opens a market for end-users to enhance their business models [ 34 ].

New and Emerging technologies: As 5G came up with many new technologies like beamforming, massive MIMO, mmWave, small cell, NOMA, MEC, and network slicing, it introduced many new features to the market. Like virtual reality (VR), users can experience the physical presence of people who are millions of kilometers away from them. Many new technologies like smart homes, smart workplaces, smart schools, smart sports academy also came into the market with this 5G Mobile network model [ 35 ].

3.2. Commercial Service Providers of 5G

5G provides high-speed internet browsing, streaming, and downloading with very high reliability and low latency. 5G network will change your working style, and it will increase new business opportunities and provide innovations that we cannot imagine. This section covers top service providers of 5G network [ 36 , 37 ].

Ericsson: Ericsson is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications company, investing around 25.62 billion USD in 5G network, which makes it the biggest telecommunication company. It claims that it is the only company working on all the continents to make the 5G network a global standard for the next generation wireless communication. Ericsson developed the first 5G radio prototype that enables the operators to set up the live field trials in their network, which helps operators understand how 5G reacts. It plays a vital role in the development of 5G hardware. It currently provides 5G services in over 27 countries with content providers like China Mobile, GCI, LGU+, AT&T, Rogers, and many more. It has 100 commercial agreements with different operators as of 2020.

Verizon: It is American multinational telecommunication which was founded in 1983. Verizon started offering 5G services in April 2020, and by December 2020, it has actively provided 5G services in 30 cities of the USA. They planned that by the end of 2021, they would deploy 5G in 30 more new cities. Verizon deployed a 5G network on mmWave, a very high band spectrum between 30 to 300 GHz. As it is a significantly less used spectrum, it provides very high-speed wireless communication. MmWave offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next-generation mobile networks. MmWave is a faster and high-band spectrum that has a limited range. Verizon planned to increase its number of 5G cells by 500% by 2020. Verizon also has an ultra wide-band flagship 5G service which is the best 5G service that increases the market price of Verizon.

Nokia: Nokia is a Finnish multinational telecommunications company which was founded in 1865. Nokia is one of the companies which adopted 5G technology very early. It is developing, researching, and building partnerships with various 5G renders to offer 5G communication as soon as possible. Nokia collaborated with Deutsche Telekom and Hamburg Port Authority and provided them 8000-hectare site for their 5G MoNArch project. Nokia is the only company that supplies 5G technology to all the operators of different countries like AT&T, Sprint, T-Mobile US and Verizon in the USA, Korea Telecom, LG U+ and SK Telecom in South Korea and NTT DOCOMO, KDDI, and SoftBank in Japan. Presently, Nokia has around 150+ agreements and 29 live networks all over the world. Nokia is continuously working hard on 5G technology to expand 5G networks all over the globe.

AT&T: AT&T is an American multinational company that was the first to deploy a 5G network in reality in 2018. They built a gigabit 5G network connection in Waco, TX, Kalamazoo, MI, and South Bend to achieve this. It is the first company that archives 1–2 gigabit per second speed in 2019. AT&T claims that it provides a 5G network connection among 225 million people worldwide by using a 6 GHz spectrum band.

T-Mobile: T-Mobile US (TMUS) is an American wireless network operator which was the first service provider that offers a real 5G nationwide network. The company knew that high-band 5G was not feasible nationwide, so they used a 600 MHz spectrum to build a significant portion of its 5G network. TMUS is planning that by 2024 they will double the total capacity and triple the full 5G capacity of T-Mobile and Sprint combined. The sprint buyout is helping T-Mobile move forward the company’s current market price to 129.98 USD.

Samsung: Samsung started their research in 5G technology in 2011. In 2013, Samsung successfully developed the world’s first adaptive array transceiver technology operating in the millimeter-wave Ka bands for cellular communications. Samsung provides several hundred times faster data transmission than standard 4G for core 5G mobile communication systems. The company achieved a lot of success in the next generation of technology, and it is considered one of the leading companies in the 5G domain.

Qualcomm: Qualcomm is an American multinational corporation in San Diego, California. It is also one of the leading company which is working on 5G chip. Qualcomm’s first 5G modem chip was announced in October 2016, and a prototype was demonstrated in October 2017. Qualcomm mainly focuses on building products while other companies talk about 5G; Qualcomm is building the technologies. According to one magazine, Qualcomm was working on three main areas of 5G networks. Firstly, radios that would use bandwidth from any network it has access to; secondly, creating more extensive ranges of spectrum by combining smaller pieces; and thirdly, a set of services for internet applications.

ZTE Corporation: ZTE Corporation was founded in 1985. It is a partially Chinese state-owned technology company that works in telecommunication. It was a leading company that worked on 4G LTE, and it is still maintaining its value and doing research and tests on 5G. It is the first company that proposed Pre5G technology with some series of solutions.

NEC Corporation: NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational information technology and electronics corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo. ZTE also started their research on 5G, and they introduced a new business concept. NEC’s main aim is to develop 5G NR for the global mobile system and create secure and intelligent technologies to realize 5G services.

Cisco: Cisco is a USA networking hardware company that also sleeves up for 5G network. Cisco’s primary focus is to support 5G in three ways: Service—enable 5G services faster so all service providers can increase their business. Infrastructure—build 5G-oriented infrastructure to implement 5G more quickly. Automation—make a more scalable, flexible, and reliable 5G network. The companies know the importance of 5G, and they want to connect more than 30 billion devices in the next couple of years. Cisco intends to work on network hardening as it is a vital part of 5G network. Cisco used AI with deep learning to develop a 5G Security Architecture, enabling Secure Network Transformation.

3.3. 5G Research Groups

Many research groups from all over the world are working on a 5G wireless mobile network [ 38 ]. These groups are continuously working on various aspects of 5G. The list of those research groups are presented as follows: 5GNOW (5th Generation Non-Orthogonal Waveform for Asynchronous Signaling), NEWCOM (Network of Excellence in Wireless Communication), 5GIC (5G Innovation Center), NYU (New York University) Wireless, 5GPPP (5G Infrastructure Public-Private Partnership), EMPHATIC (Enhanced Multi-carrier Technology for Professional Adhoc and Cell-Based Communication), ETRI(Electronics and Telecommunication Research Institute), METIS (Mobile and wireless communication Enablers for the Twenty-twenty Information Society) [ 39 ]. The various research groups along with the research area are presented in Table 4 .

Research groups working on 5G mobile networks.

3.4. 5G Applications

5G is faster than 4G and offers remote-controlled operation over a reliable network with zero delays. It provides down-link maximum throughput of up to 20 Gbps. In addition, 5G also supports 4G WWWW (4th Generation World Wide Wireless Web) [ 5 ] and is based on Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) protocol. 5G provides unlimited internet connection at your convenience, anytime, anywhere with extremely high speed, high throughput, low-latency, higher reliability, greater scalablility, and energy-efficient mobile communication technology [ 6 ].

There are lots of applications of 5G mobile network are as follows:

• High-speed mobile network: 5G is an advancement on all the previous mobile network technologies, which offers very high speed downloading speeds 0 of up to 10 to 20 Gbps. The 5G wireless network works as a fiber optic internet connection. 5G is different from all the conventional mobile transmission technologies, and it offers both voice and high-speed data connectivity efficiently. 5G offers very low latency communication of less than a millisecond, useful for autonomous driving and mission-critical applications. 5G will use millimeter waves for data transmission, providing higher bandwidth and a massive data rate than lower LTE bands. As 5 Gis a fast mobile network technology, it will enable virtual access to high processing power and secure and safe access to cloud services and enterprise applications. Small cell is one of the best features of 5G, which brings lots of advantages like high coverage, high-speed data transfer, power saving, easy and fast cloud access, etc. [ 40 ].
• Entertainment and multimedia: In one analysis in 2015, it was found that more than 50 percent of mobile internet traffic was used for video downloading. This trend will surely increase in the future, which will make video streaming more common. 5G will offer High-speed streaming of 4K videos with crystal clear audio, and it will make a high definition virtual world on your mobile. 5G will benefit the entertainment industry as it offers 120 frames per second with high resolution and higher dynamic range video streaming, and HD TV channels can also be accessed on mobile devices without any interruptions. 5G provides low latency high definition communication so augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) will be very easily implemented in the future. Virtual reality games are trendy these days, and many companies are investing in HD virtual reality games. The 5G network will offer high-speed internet connectivity with a better gaming experience [ 41 ].
• Smart homes : smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high-speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network as it offers very high-speed low latency communication.
• Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps develop smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy-saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.
• Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance, and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost-effective, and energy-saving industrial IoT operations.
• Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role in agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation, pest, insect, and electricity control.
• Autonomous Driving: The 5G wireless network offers very low latency high-speed communication, significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects, and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is essential for autonomous vehicles, decision-making is done in microseconds to avoid accidents.
• Healthcare and mission-critical applications: 5G technology will bring modernization in medicine where doctors and practitioners can perform advanced medical procedures. The 5G network will provide connectivity between all classrooms, so attending seminars and lectures will be easier. Through 5G technology, patients can connect with doctors and take their advice. Scientists are building smart medical devices which can help people with chronic medical conditions. The 5G network will boost the healthcare industry with smart devices, the internet of medical things, smart sensors, HD medical imaging technologies, and smart analytics systems. 5G will help access cloud storage, so accessing healthcare data will be very easy from any location worldwide. Doctors and medical practitioners can easily store and share large files like MRI reports within seconds using the 5G network.
• Satellite Internet: In many remote areas, ground base stations are not available, so 5G will play a crucial role in providing connectivity in such areas. The 5G network will provide connectivity using satellite systems, and the satellite system uses a constellation of multiple small satellites to provide connectivity in urban and rural areas across the world.

4. 5G Technologies

This section describes recent advances of 5G Massive MIMO, 5G NOMA, 5G millimeter wave, 5G IOT, 5G with machine learning, and 5G optimization-based approaches. In addition, the summary is also presented in each subsection that paves the researchers for the future research direction.

4.1. 5G Massive MIMO

Multiple-input-multiple-out (MIMO) is a very important technology for wireless systems. It is used for sending and receiving multiple signals simultaneously over the same radio channel. MIMO plays a very big role in WI-FI, 3G, 4G, and 4G LTE-A networks. MIMO is mainly used to achieve high spectral efficiency and energy efficiency but it was not up to the mark MIMO provides low throughput and very low reliable connectivity. To resolve this, lots of MIMO technology like single user MIMO (SU-MIMO), multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO) and network MIMO were used. However, these new MIMO also did not still fulfill the demand of end users. Massive MIMO is an advancement of MIMO technology used in the 5G network in which hundreds and thousands of antennas are attached with base stations to increase throughput and spectral efficiency. Multiple transmit and receive antennas are used in massive MIMO to increase the transmission rate and spectral efficiency. When multiple UEs generate downlink traffic simultaneously, massive MIMO gains higher capacity. Massive MIMO uses extra antennas to move energy into smaller regions of space to increase spectral efficiency and throughput [ 43 ]. In traditional systems data collection from smart sensors is a complex task as it increases latency, reduced data rate and reduced reliability. While massive MIMO with beamforming and huge multiplexing techniques can sense data from different sensors with low latency, high data rate and higher reliability. Massive MIMO will help in transmitting the data in real-time collected from different sensors to central monitoring locations for smart sensor applications like self-driving cars, healthcare centers, smart grids, smart cities, smart highways, smart homes, and smart enterprises [ 44 ].

Highlights of 5G Massive MIMO technology are as follows:

• Data rate: Massive MIMO is advised as the one of the dominant technologies to provide wireless high speed and high data rate in the gigabits per seconds.
• The relationship between wave frequency and antenna size: Both are inversely proportional to each other. It means lower frequency signals need a bigger antenna and vise versa.

Pictorial representation of multi-input and multi-output (MIMO).

• MIMO role in 5G: Massive MIMO will play a crucial role in the deployment of future 5G mobile communication as greater spectral and energy efficiency could be enabled.

State-of-the-Art Approaches

Plenty of approaches were proposed to resolve the issues of conventional MIMO [ 7 ].

The MIMO multirate, feed-forward controller is suggested by Mae et al. [ 46 ]. In the simulation, the proposed model generates the smooth control input, unlike the conventional MIMO, which generates oscillated control inputs. It also outperformed concerning the error rate. However, a combination of multirate and single rate can be used for better results.

The performance of stand-alone MIMO, distributed MIMO with and without corporation MIMO, was investigated by Panzner et al. [ 47 ]. In addition, an idea about the integration of large scale in the 5G technology was also presented. In the experimental analysis, different MIMO configurations are considered. The variation in the ratio of overall transmit antennas to spatial is deemed step-wise from equality to ten.

The simulation of massive MIMO noncooperative and cooperative systems for down-link behavior was performed by He et al. [ 48 ]. It depends on present LTE systems, which deal with various antennas in the base station set-up. It was observed that collaboration in different BS improves the system behaviors, whereas throughput is reduced slightly in this approach. However, a new method can be developed which can enhance both system behavior and throughput.

In [ 8 ], different approaches that increased the energy efficiency benefits provided by massive MIMO were presented. They analyzed the massive MIMO technology and described the detailed design of the energy consumption model for massive MIMO systems. This article has explored several techniques to enhance massive MIMO systems’ energy efficiency (EE) gains. This paper reviews standard EE-maximization approaches for the conventional massive MIMO systems, namely, scaling number of antennas, real-time implementing low-complexity operations at the base station (BS), power amplifier losses minimization, and radio frequency (RF) chain minimization requirements. In addition, open research direction is also identified.

In [ 49 ], various existing approaches based on different antenna selection and scheduling, user selection and scheduling, and joint antenna and user scheduling methods adopted in massive MIMO systems are presented in this paper. The objective of this survey article was to make awareness about the current research and future research direction in MIMO for systems. They analyzed that complete utilization of resources and bandwidth was the most crucial factor which enhances the sum rate.

In [ 50 ], authors discussed the development of various techniques for pilot contamination. To calculate the impact of pilot contamination in time division duplex (TDD) massive MIMO system, TDD and frequency division duplexing FDD patterns in massive MIMO techniques are used. They discussed different issues in pilot contamination in TDD massive MIMO systems with all the possible future directions of research. They also classified various techniques to generate the channel information for both pilot-based and subspace-based approaches.

In [ 19 ], the authors defined the uplink and downlink services for a massive MIMO system. In addition, it maintains a performance matrix that measures the impact of pilot contamination on different performances. They also examined the various application of massive MIMO such as small cells, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) schemes, massive MIMO IEEE 802, 3rd generation partnership project (3GPP) specifications, and higher frequency bands. They considered their research work crucial for cutting edge massive MIMO and covered many issues like system throughput performance and channel state acquisition at higher frequencies.

In [ 13 ], various approaches were suggested for MIMO future generation wireless communication. They made a comparative study based on performance indicators such as peak data rate, energy efficiency, latency, throughput, etc. The key findings of this survey are as follows: (1) spatial multiplexing improves the energy efficiency; (2) design of MIMO play a vital role in the enhancement of throughput; (3) enhancement of mMIMO focusing on energy & spectral performance; (4) discussed the future challenges to improve the system design.

In [ 51 ], the study of large-scale MIMO systems for an energy-efficient system sharing method was presented. For the resource allocation, circuit energy and transmit energy expenditures were taken into consideration. In addition, the optimization techniques were applied for an energy-efficient resource sharing system to enlarge the energy efficiency for individual QoS and energy constraints. The author also examined the BS configuration, which includes homogeneous and heterogeneous UEs. While simulating, they discussed that the total number of transmit antennas plays a vital role in boosting energy efficiency. They highlighted that the highest energy efficiency was obtained when the BS was set up with 100 antennas that serve 20 UEs.

This section includes various works done on 5G MIMO technology by different author’s. Table 5 shows how different author’s worked on improvement of various parameters such as throughput, latency, energy efficiency, and spectral efficiency with 5G MIMO technology.

Summary of massive MIMO-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.2. 5G Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)

NOMA is a very important radio access technology used in next generation wireless communication. Compared to previous orthogonal multiple access techniques, NOMA offers lots of benefits like high spectrum efficiency, low latency with high reliability and high speed massive connectivity. NOMA mainly works on a baseline to serve multiple users with the same resources in terms of time, space and frequency. NOMA is mainly divided into two main categories one is code domain NOMA and another is power domain NOMA. Code-domain NOMA can improve the spectral efficiency of mMIMO, which improves the connectivity in 5G wireless communication. Code-domain NOMA was divided into some more multiple access techniques like sparse code multiple access, lattice-partition multiple access, multi-user shared access and pattern-division multiple access [ 52 ]. Power-domain NOMA is widely used in 5G wireless networks as it performs well with various wireless communication techniques such as MIMO, beamforming, space-time coding, network coding, full-duplex and cooperative communication etc. [ 53 ]. The conventional orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) used by 3GPP in 4G LTE network provides very low spectral efficiency when bandwidth resources are allocated to users with low channel state information (CSI). NOMA resolved this issue as it enables users to access all the subcarrier channels so bandwidth resources allocated to the users with low CSI can still be accessed by the users with strong CSI which increases the spectral efficiency. The 5G network will support heterogeneous architecture in which small cell and macro base stations work for spectrum sharing. NOMA is a key technology of the 5G wireless system which is very helpful for heterogeneous networks as multiple users can share their data in a small cell using the NOMA principle.The NOMA is helpful in various applications like ultra-dense networks (UDN), machine to machine (M2M) communication and massive machine type communication (mMTC). As NOMA provides lots of features it has some challenges too such as NOMA needs huge computational power for a large number of users at high data rates to run the SIC algorithms. Second, when users are moving from the networks, to manage power allocation optimization is a challenging task for NOMA [ 54 ]. Hybrid NOMA (HNOMA) is a combination of power-domain and code-domain NOMA. HNOMA uses both power differences and orthogonal resources for transmission among multiple users. As HNOMA is using both power-domain NOMA and code-domain NOMA it can achieve higher spectral efficiency than Power-domain NOMA and code-domain NOMA. In HNOMA multiple groups can simultaneously transmit signals at the same time. It uses a message passing algorithm (MPA) and successive interference cancellation (SIC)-based detection at the base station for these groups [ 55 ].

Highlights of 5G NOMA technology as follows:

Pictorial representation of orthogonal and Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA).

• NOMA provides higher data rates and resolves all the loop holes of OMA that makes 5G mobile network more scalable and reliable.
• As multiple users use same frequency band simultaneously it increases the performance of whole network.
• To setup intracell and intercell interference NOMA provides nonorthogonal transmission on the transmitter end.
• The primary fundamental of NOMA is to improve the spectrum efficiency by strengthening the ramification of receiver.

State-of-the-Art of Approaches

A plenty of approaches were developed to address the various issues in NOMA.

A novel approach to address the multiple receiving signals at the same frequency is proposed in [ 22 ]. In NOMA, multiple users use the same sub-carrier, which improves the fairness and throughput of the system. As a nonorthogonal method is used among multiple users, at the time of retrieving the user’s signal at the receiver’s end, joint processing is required. They proposed solutions to optimize the receiver and the radio resource allocation of uplink NOMA. Firstly, the authors proposed an iterative MUDD which utilizes the information produced by the channel decoder to improve the performance of the multiuser detector. After that, the author suggested a power allocation and novel subcarrier that enhances the users’ weighted sum rate for the NOMA scheme. Their proposed model showed that NOMA performed well as compared to OFDM in terms of fairness and efficiency.

In [ 53 ], the author’s reviewed a power-domain NOMA that uses superposition coding (SC) and successive interference cancellation (SIC) at the transmitter and the receiver end. Lots of analyses were held that described that NOMA effectively satisfies user data rate demands and network-level of 5G technologies. The paper presented a complete review of recent advances in the 5G NOMA system. It showed the comparative analysis regarding allocation procedures, user fairness, state-of-the-art efficiency evaluation, user pairing pattern, etc. The study also analyzes NOMA’s behavior when working with other wireless communication techniques, namely, beamforming, MIMO, cooperative connections, network, space-time coding, etc.

In [ 9 ], the authors proposed NOMA with MEC, which improves the QoS as well as reduces the latency of the 5G wireless network. This model increases the uplink NOMA by decreasing the user’s uplink energy consumption. They formulated an optimized NOMA framework that reduces the energy consumption of MEC by using computing and communication resource allocation, user clustering, and transmit powers.

In [ 10 ], the authors proposed a model which investigates outage probability under average channel state information CSI and data rate in full CSI to resolve the problem of optimal power allocation, which increase the NOMA downlink system among users. They developed simple low-complexity algorithms to provide the optimal solution. The obtained simulation results showed NOMA’s efficiency, achieving higher performance fairness compared to the TDMA configurations. It was observed from the results that NOMA, through the appropriate power amplifiers (PA), ensures the high-performance fairness requirement for the future 5G wireless communication networks.

In [ 56 ], researchers discussed that the NOMA technology and waveform modulation techniques had been used in the 5G mobile network. Therefore, this research gave a detailed survey of non-orthogonal waveform modulation techniques and NOMA schemes for next-generation mobile networks. By analyzing and comparing multiple access technologies, they considered the future evolution of these technologies for 5G mobile communication.

In [ 57 ], the authors surveyed non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) from the development phase to the recent developments. They have also compared NOMA techniques with traditional OMA techniques concerning information theory. The author discussed the NOMA schemes categorically as power and code domain, including the design principles, operating principles, and features. Comparison is based upon the system’s performance, spectral efficiency, and the receiver’s complexity. Also discussed are the future challenges, open issues, and their expectations of NOMA and how it will support the key requirements of 5G mobile communication systems with massive connectivity and low latency.

In [ 17 ], authors present the first review of an elementary NOMA model with two users, which clarify its central precepts. After that, a general design with multicarrier supports with a random number of users on each sub-carrier is analyzed. In performance evaluation with the existing approaches, resource sharing and multiple-input multiple-output NOMA are examined. Furthermore, they took the key elements of NOMA and its potential research demands. Finally, they reviewed the two-user SC-NOMA design and a multi-user MC-NOMA design to highlight NOMA’s basic approaches and conventions. They also present the research study about the performance examination, resource assignment, and MIMO in NOMA.

In this section, various works by different authors done on 5G NOMA technology is covered. Table 6 shows how other authors worked on the improvement of various parameters such as spectral efficiency, fairness, and computing capacity with 5G NOMA technology.

Summary of NOMA-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.3. 5G Millimeter Wave (mmWave)

Millimeter wave is an extremely high frequency band, which is very useful for 5G wireless networks. MmWave uses 30 GHz to 300 GHz spectrum band for transmission. The frequency band between 30 GHz to 300 GHz is known as mmWave because these waves have wavelengths between 1 to 10 mm. Till now radar systems and satellites are only using mmWave as these are very fast frequency bands which provide very high speed wireless communication. Many mobile network providers also started mmWave for transmitting data between base stations. Using two ways the speed of data transmission can be improved one is by increasing spectrum utilization and second is by increasing spectrum bandwidth. Out of these two approaches increasing bandwidth is quite easy and better. The frequency band below 5 GHz is very crowded as many technologies are using it so to boost up the data transmission rate 5G wireless network uses mmWave technology which instead of increasing spectrum utilization, increases the spectrum bandwidth [ 58 ]. To maximize the signal bandwidth in wireless communication the carrier frequency should also be increased by 5% because the signal bandwidth is directly proportional to carrier frequencies. The frequency band between 28 GHz to 60 GHz is very useful for 5G wireless communication as 28 GHz frequency band offers up to 1 GHz spectrum bandwidth and 60 GHz frequency band offers 2 GHz spectrum bandwidth. 4G LTE provides 2 GHz carrier frequency which offers only 100 MHz spectrum bandwidth. However, the use of mmWave increases the spectrum bandwidth 10 times, which leads to better transmission speeds [ 59 , 60 ].

Highlights of 5G mmWave are as follows:

Pictorial representation of millimeter wave.

• The 5G mmWave offer three advantages: (1) MmWave is very less used new Band, (2) MmWave signals carry more data than lower frequency wave, and (3) MmWave can be incorporated with MIMO antenna with the potential to offer a higher magnitude capacity compared to current communication systems.

In [ 11 ], the authors presented the survey of mmWave communications for 5G. The advantage of mmWave communications is adaptability, i.e., it supports the architectures and protocols up-gradation, which consists of integrated circuits, systems, etc. The authors over-viewed the present solutions and examined them concerning effectiveness, performance, and complexity. They also discussed the open research issues of mmWave communications in 5G concerning the software-defined network (SDN) architecture, network state information, efficient regulation techniques, and the heterogeneous system.

In [ 61 ], the authors present the recent work done by investigators in 5G; they discussed the design issues and demands of mmWave 5G antennas for cellular handsets. After that, they designed a small size and low-profile 60 GHz array of antenna units that contain 3D planer mesh-grid antenna elements. For the future prospect, a framework is designed in which antenna components are used to operate cellular handsets on mmWave 5G smartphones. In addition, they cross-checked the mesh-grid array of antennas with the polarized beam for upcoming hardware challenges.

In [ 12 ], the authors considered the suitability of the mmWave band for 5G cellular systems. They suggested a resource allocation system for concurrent D2D communications in mmWave 5G cellular systems, and it improves network efficiency and maintains network connectivity. This research article can serve as guidance for simulating D2D communications in mmWave 5G cellular systems. Massive mmWave BS may be set up to obtain a high delivery rate and aggregate efficiency. Therefore, many wireless users can hand off frequently between the mmWave base terminals, and it emerges the demand to search the neighbor having better network connectivity.

In [ 62 ], the authors provided a brief description of the cellular spectrum which ranges from 1 GHz to 3 GHz and is very crowed. In addition, they presented various noteworthy factors to set up mmWave communications in 5G, namely, channel characteristics regarding mmWave signal attenuation due to free space propagation, atmospheric gaseous, and rain. In addition, hybrid beamforming architecture in the mmWave technique is analyzed. They also suggested methods for the blockage effect in mmWave communications due to penetration damage. Finally, the authors have studied designing the mmWave transmission with small beams in nonorthogonal device-to-device communication.

This section covered various works done on 5G mmWave technology. The Table 7 shows how different author’s worked on the improvement of various parameters i.e., transmission rate, coverage, and cost, with 5G mmWave technology.

Summary of existing mmWave-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.4. 5G IoT Based Approaches

The 5G mobile network plays a big role in developing the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT will connect lots of things with the internet like appliances, sensors, devices, objects, and applications. These applications will collect lots of data from different devices and sensors. 5G will provide very high speed internet connectivity for data collection, transmission, control, and processing. 5G is a flexible network with unused spectrum availability and it offers very low cost deployment that is why it is the most efficient technology for IoT [ 63 ]. In many areas, 5G provides benefits to IoT, and below are some examples:

Smart homes: smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network, as it offers very high speed low latency communication.

Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps in developing smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.

Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost effective, and energy-saving industrial operation for industrial IoT.

Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role for agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers to track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation control, pest control, insect control, and electricity control.

Autonomous Driving: 5G wireless network offers very low latency high speed communication which is very significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is important for autonomous vehicles, decision taking is performed in microseconds to avoid accidents [ 64 ].

Highlights of 5G IoT are as follows:

Pictorial representation of IoT with 5G.

• 5G with IoT is a new feature of next-generation mobile communication, which provides a high-speed internet connection between moderated devices. 5G IoT also offers smart homes, smart devices, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart industries, etc., for end-users to make them smarter.
• IoT deals with moderate devices which connect through the internet. The approach of the IoT has made the consideration of the research associated with the outcome of providing wearable, smart-phones, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart devices, washing machines, tablets, etc., and these diverse systems are associated to a common interface with the intelligence to connect.
• Significant IoT applications include private healthcare systems, traffic management, industrial management, and tactile internet, etc.

Plenty of approaches is devised to address the issues of IoT [ 14 , 65 , 66 ].

In [ 65 ], the paper focuses on 5G mobile systems due to the emerging trends and developing technologies, which results in the exponential traffic growth in IoT. The author surveyed the challenges and demands during deployment of the massive IoT applications with the main focus on mobile networking. The author reviewed the features of standard IoT infrastructure, along with the cellular-based, low-power wide-area technologies (LPWA) such as eMTC, extended coverage (EC)-GSM-IoT, as well as noncellular, low-power wide-area (LPWA) technologies such as SigFox, LoRa etc.

In [ 14 ], the authors presented how 5G technology copes with the various issues of IoT today. It provides a brief review of existing and forming 5G architectures. The survey indicates the role of 5G in the foundation of the IoT ecosystem. IoT and 5G can easily combine with improved wireless technologies to set up the same ecosystem that can fulfill the current requirement for IoT devices. 5G can alter nature and will help to expand the development of IoT devices. As the process of 5G unfolds, global associations will find essentials for setting up a cross-industry engagement in determining and enlarging the 5G system.

In [ 66 ], the author introduced an IoT authentication scheme in a 5G network, with more excellent reliability and dynamic. The scheme proposed a privacy-protected procedure for selecting slices; it provided an additional fog node for proper data transmission and service types of the subscribers, along with service-oriented authentication and key understanding to maintain the secrecy, precision of users, and confidentiality of service factors. Users anonymously identify the IoT servers and develop a vital channel for service accessibility and data cached on local fog nodes and remote IoT servers. The author performed a simulation to manifest the security and privacy preservation of the user over the network.

This section covered various works done on 5G IoT by multiple authors. Table 8 shows how different author’s worked on the improvement of numerous parameters, i.e., data rate, security requirement, and performance with 5G IoT.

Summary of IoT-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.5. Machine Learning Techniques for 5G

Various machine learning (ML) techniques were applied in 5G networks and mobile communication. It provides a solution to multiple complex problems, which requires a lot of hand-tuning. ML techniques can be broadly classified as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. Let’s discuss each learning technique separately and where it impacts the 5G network.

Supervised Learning, where user works with labeled data; some 5G network problems can be further categorized as classification and regression problems. Some regression problems such as scheduling nodes in 5G and energy availability can be predicted using Linear Regression (LR) algorithm. To accurately predict the bandwidth and frequency allocation Statistical Logistic Regression (SLR) is applied. Some supervised classifiers are applied to predict the network demand and allocate network resources based on the connectivity performance; it signifies the topology setup and bit rates. Support Vector Machine (SVM) and NN-based approximation algorithms are used for channel learning based on observable channel state information. Deep Neural Network (DNN) is also employed to extract solutions for predicting beamforming vectors at the BS’s by taking mapping functions and uplink pilot signals into considerations.

In unsupervised Learning, where the user works with unlabeled data, various clustering techniques are applied to enhance network performance and connectivity without interruptions. K-means clustering reduces the data travel by storing data centers content into clusters. It optimizes the handover estimation based on mobility pattern and selection of relay nodes in the V2V network. Hierarchical clustering reduces network failure by detecting the intrusion in the mobile wireless network; unsupervised soft clustering helps in reducing latency by clustering fog nodes. The nonparametric Bayesian unsupervised learning technique reduces traffic in the network by actively serving the user’s requests and demands. Other unsupervised learning techniques such as Adversarial Auto Encoders (AAE) and Affinity Propagation Clustering techniques detect irregular behavior in the wireless spectrum and manage resources for ultradense small cells, respectively.

In case of an uncertain environment in the 5G wireless network, reinforcement learning (RL) techniques are employed to solve some problems. Actor-critic reinforcement learning is used for user scheduling and resource allocation in the network. Markov decision process (MDP) and Partially Observable MDP (POMDP) is used for Quality of Experience (QoE)-based handover decision-making for Hetnets. Controls packet call admission in HetNets and channel access process for secondary users in a Cognitive Radio Network (CRN). Deep RL is applied to decide the communication channel and mobility and speeds up the secondary user’s learning rate using an antijamming strategy. Deep RL is employed in various 5G network application parameters such as resource allocation and security [ 67 ]. Table 9 shows the state-of-the-art ML-based solution for 5G network.

The state-of-the-art ML-based solution for 5G network.

Highlights of machine learning techniques for 5G are as follows:

Pictorial representation of machine learning (ML) in 5G.

• In ML, a model will be defined which fulfills the desired requirements through which desired results are obtained. In the later stage, it examines accuracy from obtained results.
• ML plays a vital role in 5G network analysis for threat detection, network load prediction, final arrangement, and network formation. Searching for a better balance between power, length of antennas, area, and network thickness crossed with the spontaneous use of services in the universe of individual users and types of devices.

In [ 79 ], author’s firstly describes the demands for the traditional authentication procedures and benefits of intelligent authentication. The intelligent authentication method was established to improve security practice in 5G-and-beyond wireless communication systems. Thereafter, the machine learning paradigms for intelligent authentication were organized into parametric and non-parametric research methods, as well as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning approaches. As a outcome, machine learning techniques provide a new paradigm into authentication under diverse network conditions and unstable dynamics. In addition, prompt intelligence to the security management to obtain cost-effective, better reliable, model-free, continuous, and situation-aware authentication.

In [ 68 ], the authors proposed a machine learning-based model to predict the traffic load at a particular location. They used a mobile network traffic dataset to train a model that can calculate the total number of user requests at a time. To launch access and mobility management function (AMF) instances according to the requirement as there were no predictions of user request the performance automatically degrade as AMF does not handle these requests at a time. Earlier threshold-based techniques were used to predict the traffic load, but that approach took too much time; therefore, the authors proposed RNN algorithm-based ML to predict the traffic load, which gives efficient results.

In [ 15 ], authors discussed the issue of network slice admission, resource allocation among subscribers, and how to maximize the profit of infrastructure providers. The author proposed a network slice admission control algorithm based on SMDP (decision-making process) that guarantees the subscribers’ best acceptance policies and satisfiability (tenants). They also suggested novel N3AC, a neural network-based algorithm that optimizes performance under various configurations, significantly outperforms practical and straightforward approaches.

This section includes various works done on 5G ML by different authors. Table 10 shows the state-of-the-art work on the improvement of various parameters such as energy efficiency, Quality of Services (QoS), and latency with 5G ML.

The state-of-the-art ML-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.6. Optimization Techniques for 5G

Optimization techniques may be applied to capture NP-Complete or NP-Hard problems in 5G technology. This section briefly describes various research works suggested for 5G technology based on optimization techniques.

In [ 80 ], Massive MIMO technology is used in 5G mobile network to make it more flexible and scalable. The MIMO implementation in 5G needs a significant number of radio frequencies is required in the RF circuit that increases the cost and energy consumption of the 5G network. This paper provides a solution that increases the cost efficiency and energy efficiency with many radio frequency chains for a 5G wireless communication network. They give an optimized energy efficient technique for MIMO antenna and mmWave technologies based 5G mobile communication network. The proposed Energy Efficient Hybrid Precoding (EEHP) algorithm to increase the energy efficiency for the 5G wireless network. This algorithm minimizes the cost of an RF circuit with a large number of RF chains.

In [ 16 ], authors have discussed the growing demand for energy efficiency in the next-generation networks. In the last decade, they have figured out the things in wireless transmissions, which proved a change towards pursuing green communication for the next generation system. The importance of adopting the correct EE metric was also reviewed. Further, they worked through the different approaches that can be applied in the future for increasing the network’s energy and posed a summary of the work that was completed previously to enhance the energy productivity of the network using these capabilities. A system design for EE development using relay selection was also characterized, along with an observation of distinct algorithms applied for EE in relay-based ecosystems.

In [ 81 ], authors presented how AI-based approach is used to the setup of Self Organizing Network (SON) functionalities for radio access network (RAN) design and optimization. They used a machine learning approach to predict the results for 5G SON functionalities. Firstly, the input was taken from various sources; then, prediction and clustering-based machine learning models were applied to produce the results. Multiple AI-based devices were used to extract the knowledge analysis to execute SON functionalities smoothly. Based on results, they tested how self-optimization, self-testing, and self-designing are done for SON. The author also describes how the proposed mechanism classifies in different orders.

In [ 82 ], investigators examined the working of OFDM in various channel environments. They also figured out the changes in frame duration of the 5G TDD frame design. Subcarrier spacing is beneficial to obtain a small frame length with control overhead. They provided various techniques to reduce the growing guard period (GP) and cyclic prefix (CP) like complete utilization of multiple subcarrier spacing, management and data parts of frame at receiver end, various uses of timing advance (TA) or total control of flexible CP size.

This section includes various works that were done on 5G optimization by different authors. Table 11 shows how other authors worked on the improvement of multiple parameters such as energy efficiency, power optimization, and latency with 5G optimization.

Summary of Optimization Based Approaches in 5G Technology.

5. Description of Novel 5G Features over 4G

This section presents descriptions of various novel features of 5G, namely, the concept of small cell, beamforming, and MEC.

5.1. Small Cell

Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes which work in the range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells play a very important role in implementation of the 5G wireless network. Small cells are low power base stations which cover small areas. Small cells are quite similar with all the previous cells used in various wireless networks. However, these cells have some advantages like they can work with low power and they are also capable of working with high data rates. Small cells help in rollout of 5G network with ultra high speed and low latency communication. Small cells in the 5G network use some new technologies like MIMO, beamforming, and mmWave for high speed data transmission. The design of small cells hardware is very simple so its implementation is quite easier and faster. There are three types of small cell tower available in the market. Femtocells, picocells, and microcells [ 83 ]. As shown in the Table 12 .

Types of Small cells.

MmWave is a very high band spectrum between 30 to 300 GHz. As it is a significantly less used spectrum, it provides very high-speed wireless communication. MmWave offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next-generation mobile networks. MmWave has lots of advantages, but it has some disadvantages, too, such as mmWave signals are very high-frequency signals, so they have more collision with obstacles in the air which cause the signals loses energy quickly. Buildings and trees also block MmWave signals, so these signals cover a shorter distance. To resolve these issues, multiple small cell stations are installed to cover the gap between end-user and base station [ 18 ]. Small cell covers a very shorter range, so the installation of a small cell depends on the population of a particular area. Generally, in a populated place, the distance between each small cell varies from 10 to 90 meters. In the survey [ 20 ], various authors implemented small cells with massive MIMO simultaneously. They also reviewed multiple technologies used in 5G like beamforming, small cell, massive MIMO, NOMA, device to device (D2D) communication. Various problems like interference management, spectral efficiency, resource management, energy efficiency, and backhauling are discussed. The author also gave a detailed presentation of all the issues occurring while implementing small cells with various 5G technologies. As shown in the Figure 7 , mmWave has a higher range, so it can be easily blocked by the obstacles as shown in Figure 7 a. This is one of the key concerns of millimeter-wave signal transmission. To solve this issue, the small cell can be placed at a short distance to transmit the signals easily, as shown in Figure 7 b.

Pictorial representation of communication with and without small cells.

5.2. Beamforming

Beamforming is a key technology of wireless networks which transmits the signals in a directional manner. 5G beamforming making a strong wireless connection toward a receiving end. In conventional systems when small cells are not using beamforming, moving signals to particular areas is quite difficult. Beamforming counter this issue using beamforming small cells are able to transmit the signals in particular direction towards a device like mobile phone, laptops, autonomous vehicle and IoT devices. Beamforming is improving the efficiency and saves the energy of the 5G network. Beamforming is broadly divided into three categories: Digital beamforming, analog beamforming and hybrid beamforming. Digital beamforming: multiuser MIMO is equal to digital beamforming which is mainly used in LTE Advanced Pro and in 5G NR. In digital beamforming the same frequency or time resources can be used to transmit the data to multiple users at the same time which improves the cell capacity of wireless networks. Analog Beamforming: In mmWave frequency range 5G NR analog beamforming is a very important approach which improves the coverage. In digital beamforming there are chances of high pathloss in mmWave as only one beam per set of antenna is formed. While the analog beamforming saves high pathloss in mmWave. Hybrid beamforming: hybrid beamforming is a combination of both analog beamforming and digital beamforming. In the implementation of MmWave in 5G network hybrid beamforming will be used [ 84 ].

Wireless signals in the 4G network are spreading in large areas, and nature is not Omnidirectional. Thus, energy depletes rapidly, and users who are accessing these signals also face interference problems. The beamforming technique is used in the 5G network to resolve this issue. In beamforming signals are directional. They move like a laser beam from the base station to the user, so signals seem to be traveling in an invisible cable. Beamforming helps achieve a faster data rate; as the signals are directional, it leads to less energy consumption and less interference. In [ 21 ], investigators evolve some techniques which reduce interference and increase system efficiency of the 5G mobile network. In this survey article, the authors covered various challenges faced while designing an optimized beamforming algorithm. Mainly focused on different design parameters such as performance evaluation and power consumption. In addition, they also described various issues related to beamforming like CSI, computation complexity, and antenna correlation. They also covered various research to cover how beamforming helps implement MIMO in next-generation mobile networks [ 85 ]. Figure 8 shows the pictorial representation of communication with and without using beamforming.

Pictorial Representation of communication with and without using beamforming.

5.3. Mobile Edge Computing

Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) [ 24 ]: MEC is an extended version of cloud computing that brings cloud resources closer to the end-user. When we talk about computing, the very first thing that comes to our mind is cloud computing. Cloud computing is a very famous technology that offers many services to end-user. Still, cloud computing has many drawbacks. The services available in the cloud are too far from end-users that create latency, and cloud user needs to download the complete application before use, which also increases the burden to the device [ 86 ]. MEC creates an edge between the end-user and cloud server, bringing cloud computing closer to the end-user. Now, all the services, namely, video conferencing, virtual software, etc., are offered by this edge that improves cloud computing performance. Another essential feature of MEC is that the application is split into two parts, which, first one is available at cloud server, and the second is at the user’s device. Therefore, the user need not download the complete application on his device that increases the performance of the end user’s device. Furthermore, MEC provides cloud services at very low latency and less bandwidth. In [ 23 , 87 ], the author’s investigation proved that successful deployment of MEC in 5G network increases the overall performance of 5G architecture. Graphical differentiation between cloud computing and mobile edge computing is presented in Figure 9 .

Pictorial representation of cloud computing vs. mobile edge computing.

6. 5G Security

Security is the key feature in the telecommunication network industry, which is necessary at various layers, to handle 5G network security in applications such as IoT, Digital forensics, IDS and many more [ 88 , 89 ]. The authors [ 90 ], discussed the background of 5G and its security concerns, challenges and future directions. The author also introduced the blockchain technology that can be incorporated with the IoT to overcome the challenges in IoT. The paper aims to create a security framework which can be incorporated with the LTE advanced network, and effective in terms of cost, deployment and QoS. In [ 91 ], author surveyed various form of attacks, the security challenges, security solutions with respect to the affected technology such as SDN, Network function virtualization (NFV), Mobile Clouds and MEC, and security standardizations of 5G, i.e., 3GPP, 5GPPP, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN), European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). In [ 92 ], author elaborated various technological aspects, security issues and their existing solutions and also mentioned the new emerging technological paradigms for 5G security such as blockchain, quantum cryptography, AI, SDN, CPS, MEC, D2D. The author aims to create new security frameworks for 5G for further use of this technology in development of smart cities, transportation and healthcare. In [ 93 ], author analyzed the threats and dark threat, security aspects concerned with SDN and NFV, also their Commercial & Industrial Security Corporation (CISCO) 5G vision and new security innovations with respect to the new evolving architectures of 5G [ 94 ].

AuthenticationThe identification of the user in any network is made with the help of authentication. The different mobile network generations from 1G to 5G have used multiple techniques for user authentication. 5G utilizes the 5G Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA) authentication method, which shares a cryptographic key between user equipment (UE) and its home network and establishes a mutual authentication process between the both [ 95 ].

Access Control To restrict the accessibility in the network, 5G supports access control mechanisms to provide a secure and safe environment to the users and is controlled by network providers. 5G uses simple public key infrastructure (PKI) certificates for authenticating access in the 5G network. PKI put forward a secure and dynamic environment for the 5G network. The simple PKI technique provides flexibility to the 5G network; it can scale up and scale down as per the user traffic in the network [ 96 , 97 ].

Communication Security 5G deals to provide high data bandwidth, low latency, and better signal coverage. Therefore secure communication is the key concern in the 5G network. UE, mobile operators, core network, and access networks are the main focal point for the attackers in 5G communication. Some of the common attacks in communication at various segments are Botnet, message insertion, micro-cell, distributed denial of service (DDoS), and transport layer security (TLS)/secure sockets layer (SSL) attacks [ 98 , 99 ].

Encryption The confidentiality of the user and the network is done using encryption techniques. As 5G offers multiple services, end-to-end (E2E) encryption is the most suitable technique applied over various segments in the 5G network. Encryption forbids unauthorized access to the network and maintains the data privacy of the user. To encrypt the radio traffic at Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer, three 128-bits keys are applied at the user plane, nonaccess stratum (NAS), and access stratum (AS) [ 100 ].

7. Summary of 5G Technology Based on Above-Stated Challenges

In this section, various issues addressed by investigators in 5G technologies are presented in Table 13 . In addition, different parameters are considered, such as throughput, latency, energy efficiency, data rate, spectral efficiency, fairness & computing capacity, transmission rate, coverage, cost, security requirement, performance, QoS, power optimization, etc., indexed from R1 to R14.

Summary of 5G Technology above stated challenges (R1:Throughput, R2:Latency, R3:Energy Efficiency, R4:Data Rate, R5:Spectral efficiency, R6:Fairness & Computing Capacity, R7:Transmission Rate, R8:Coverage, R9:Cost, R10:Security requirement, R11:Performance, R12:Quality of Services (QoS), R13:Power Optimization).

8. Conclusions

This survey article illustrates the emergence of 5G, its evolution from 1G to 5G mobile network, applications, different research groups, their work, and the key features of 5G. It is not just a mobile broadband network, different from all the previous mobile network generations; it offers services like IoT, V2X, and Industry 4.0. This paper covers a detailed survey from multiple authors on different technologies in 5G, such as massive MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), millimeter wave, small cell, MEC (Mobile Edge Computing), beamforming, optimization, and machine learning in 5G. After each section, a tabular comparison covers all the state-of-the-research held in these technologies. This survey also shows the importance of these newly added technologies and building a flexible, scalable, and reliable 5G network.

9. Future Findings

This article covers a detailed survey on the 5G mobile network and its features. These features make 5G more reliable, scalable, efficient at affordable rates. As discussed in the above sections, numerous technical challenges originate while implementing those features or providing services over a 5G mobile network. So, for future research directions, the research community can overcome these challenges while implementing these technologies (MIMO, NOMA, small cell, mmWave, beam-forming, MEC) over a 5G network. 5G communication will bring new improvements over the existing systems. Still, the current solutions cannot fulfill the autonomous system and future intelligence engineering requirements after a decade. There is no matter of discussion that 5G will provide better QoS and new features than 4G. But there is always room for improvement as the considerable growth of centralized data and autonomous industry 5G wireless networks will not be capable of fulfilling their demands in the future. So, we need to move on new wireless network technology that is named 6G. 6G wireless network will bring new heights in mobile generations, as it includes (i) massive human-to-machine communication, (ii) ubiquitous connectivity between the local device and cloud server, (iii) creation of data fusion technology for various mixed reality experiences and multiverps maps. (iv) Focus on sensing and actuation to control the network of the entire world. The 6G mobile network will offer new services with some other technologies; these services are 3D mapping, reality devices, smart homes, smart wearable, autonomous vehicles, artificial intelligence, and sense. It is expected that 6G will provide ultra-long-range communication with a very low latency of 1 ms. The per-user bit rate in a 6G wireless network will be approximately 1 Tbps, and it will also provide wireless communication, which is 1000 times faster than 5G networks.

Acknowledgments

Author contributions.

Conceptualization: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L. data gathering: R.D., G.C., P.L, I.Y. funding acquisition: I.Y. investigation: I.Y., G.C., G.P. methodology: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L., G.P., survey: I.Y., G.C., P.L, G.P., R.D. supervision: G.C., I.Y., G.P. validation: I.Y., G.P. visualization: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L. writing, original draft: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L., G.P. writing, review, and editing: I.Y., G.C., G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This paper was supported by Soonchunhyang University.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

5G technology essay

In an increasingly interconnected world, the demand for faster, more reliable, and transformative connectivity has propelled the development of fifth-generation (5G) technology. 5G is not merely an upgrade from previous generations but a revolutionary leap forward in wireless communication.

Home > Technical Articles > 5G technology essay

Title: The Evolution of Connectivity: Exploring the Revolutionary Potential of 5G Technology

Introduction:.

In an increasingly interconnected world, the demand for faster, more reliable, and transformative connectivity has propelled the development of fifth-generation (5G) technology. 5G is not merely an upgrade from previous generations but a revolutionary leap forward in wireless communication. This essay delves into the intricacies of 5G technology, its underlying principles, potential applications, and the profound impact it is set to have on various industries and society as a whole.

Understanding 5G Technology:

5G technology represents the culmination of years of research, innovation, and collaborative efforts by telecommunication companies, technology leaders, and regulatory bodies. It is characterized by several key features:

• Enhanced Data Transfer Speeds: 5G offers significantly faster data transfer rates, measured in gigabits per second (Gbps), enabling seamless streaming, quicker downloads, and ultra-responsive real-time applications.
• Low Latency: 5G dramatically reduces latency, the delay in data transmission, to mere milliseconds. This near-instantaneous response time enables a host of applications that demand real-time interactivity, such as autonomous vehicles, remote surgeries, and augmented reality experiences.
• Massive Connectivity: 5G is designed to support the massive Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, connecting billions of devices, sensors, and machines. This connectivity enables smart cities, industrial automation, and a myriad of other IoT applications.

Technical Foundations of 5G:

At its core, 5G technology builds upon several technical foundations that set it apart from its predecessors:

• Millimeter Wave (mmWave) Technology: 5G utilizes high-frequency mmWave bands to achieve extremely high data rates. These bands, in the range of 30-300 GHz, offer vast bandwidth and capacity but have shorter range limitations, necessitating the deployment of small cells and a dense network infrastructure.
• Massive Multiple Input, Multiple Output (Massive MIMO): 5G incorporates advanced antenna systems with a large number of antennas, enabling Massive MIMO. This technology enhances network capacity, improves spectral efficiency, and enables beamforming for focused signal transmission.
• Network Slicing: 5G introduces the concept of network slicing, dividing the physical network infrastructure into virtual networks customized to cater to specific requirements. Each network slice is optimized for different applications, such as low latency for critical communications or high bandwidth for multimedia streaming.

Potential Applications of 5G:

The advent of 5G technology unlocks a plethora of applications and transformative use cases:

• Smart Cities: 5G enables smart city initiatives by facilitating real-time monitoring, efficient transportation systems, intelligent energy grids, and responsive urban services. This leads to improved sustainability, reduced congestion, and enhanced quality of life for citizens.
• Industry 4.0 and Industrial Automation: With its low latency and high reliability, 5G empowers industrial automation and the fourth industrial revolution. It enables real-time control, remote monitoring, predictive maintenance, and collaborative robotics, driving operational efficiency and productivity.
• Healthcare: 5G revolutionizes healthcare by enabling telemedicine, remote diagnostics, and connected medical devices. It facilitates high-quality video consultations, remote surgeries, and real-time patient monitoring, ensuring accessible and efficient healthcare services.
• Autonomous Vehicles: 5G's ultra-low latency and high bandwidth are crucial for the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles. It enables vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication, enhancing road safety, traffic management, and intelligent transportation systems.
• Enhanced Mobile Broadband and Immersive Experiences: 5G brings blazing-fast speeds and seamless connectivity to mobile broadband users. It unlocks immersive experiences through virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and ultra-high-definition video streaming, transforming entertainment, gaming, and content consumption.

Impact on Society and Economy:

The advent of 5G technology is poised to have a profound impact on society and the economy:

• Economic Growth and Job Creation: 5G deployment leads to significant economic growth, driving innovation, investment, and job creation in various sectors. It fosters the development of new businesses, startups, and entrepreneurial opportunities that leverage the transformative power of 5G networks.
• Bridging the Digital Divide: 5G technology has the potential to bridge the digital divide by providing high-speed connectivity to underserved areas and remote regions. It facilitates access to digital services, education, e-commerce, and healthcare, empowering communities and reducing disparities.
• Sustainable Development: 5G-enabled smart city solutions contribute to sustainable development by optimizing resource utilization, reducing energy consumption, and improving overall efficiency. It paves the way for greener transportation, energy management, and urban planning.
• Technological Advancement and Innovation: 5G acts as a catalyst for technological advancement and innovation across various sectors. It stimulates research and development, promotes collaboration between academia and industry, and fuels breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, edge computing, and IoT.

What are the benefits of 5G?

5G offers a number of benefits over 4G LTE, including:

• Faster speeds:  5G is expected to offer peak speeds of up to 10 Gbps, which is significantly faster than 4G LTE. This means that users can download movies, stream videos, and play games much faster than ever before.
• Lower latency:  Latency is the time it takes for data to travel from one point to another. 5G has much lower latency than 4G LTE, which means that users will experience a smoother and more responsive experience when using applications that require real-time communication, such as video conferencing and online gaming.
• More capacity:  5G networks can support more devices than 4G LTE networks. This is important as the number of connected devices continues to grow.
• New applications:  5G will enable new applications that were not possible with 4G LTE, such as self-driving cars, remote surgery, and augmented reality.

What are the challenges of 5G?

5G also faces a number of challenges, including:

• Cost:  5G networks are more expensive to build and deploy than 4G LTE networks. This means that it may take some time for 5G to be widely available.
• Range:  5G signals do not travel as far as 4G LTE signals. This means that 5G coverage may be more limited than 4G LTE coverage.
• Health concerns:  Some people have raised concerns about the potential health risks of 5G radiation. However, there is no scientific evidence to support these concerns.

Conclusion:

5G technology represents a revolutionary leap forward in wireless communication, redefining the possibilities of connectivity and paving the way for a transformative future. With its remarkable speed, ultra-low latency, and massive connectivity, 5G has the potential to revolutionize industries, empower individuals, bridge the digital divide, and drive sustainable development. As 5G networks continue to be deployed globally, we stand on the cusp of a connected era where the boundaries of innovation and human potential are pushed even further.

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• Electronics
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What Is 5G, and Does It Actually Make a Difference?

By Rob Pegoraro

When 5G—the fifth-generation mobile network—arrived in 2019, industry advocates touted it with the sort of vague fervor usually associated with cryptocurrency evangelism. Connected vehicles! Virtual reality that’s even realer! Full-length movies downloaded in seconds! But in the three years since, 5G has often fallen vastly short of those promises.

The research

What is 5g (supposed to be), how fast is 5g, is 5g expensive, which carrier has the fastest 5g, which carrier has the broadest 5g coverage, what phones support 5g, what to look forward to.

The chapters in the story of wireless connectivity consist of broad generations of technology, each of which has delivered a notable jump in speed. Things began in the 1980s with 1G , or  analog cellular , and advanced in the 1990s with 2G , the first digital cellular service . By the late 2000s, 2G had been shoved aside by 3G (remember how much faster the iPhone 3G seemed after its predecessor?), but within a few years 4G (also known as LTE, short for Long Term Evolution) had begun making 3G obsolete.

The change to 5G stands apart from those earlier transitions because so much of it has been driven by wireless carriers lighting up extensive new swaths of spectrum. In this case spectrum refers to wide ranges of wireless frequencies, licensed in the US by the Federal Communications Commission , that are themselves split into much narrower bands—individual lanes of a sort—that a particular carrier may or may not use and that a particular phone may or may not support. Whereas the 3G and 4G transitions did not require carriers to start using new-to-them spectrum, the arrival of 5G has involved two new sets of higher-frequency bands that allow for faster speeds and greater capacity but don’t reach as far.

Telecom companies use the image of a layer cake to compare 5G’s frequency ranges and illustrate their trade-offs. The widest, base layer of 5G consists of today’s low-band frequencies: 600 MHz to 1900 MHz . These allow about the same range and reliability as 4G but don’t provide much of a boost in speed. The middle layer represents today’s midband frequencies, from 2.5 GHz to almost 4 GHz, which offer a higher gear of speed but require a step back in coverage. The top layer is millimeter-wave (or mmWave) 5G, which runs from 28 GHz to 47 GHz among US carriers and provides the fastest connectivity with the lowest latency but also has the worst range. The three layers comprise the cake called 5G, but obviously, not all the layers are created equal, even if they’re all referred to by the same name.

The three US carriers, meanwhile, use their own branding for different types of 5G connectivity. AT&T and Verizon call the low-band version Nationwide 5G, while T-Mobile brands it as Extended Range. Midband 5G gets a separate moniker at each carrier: T-Mobile calls it Ultra Capacity , AT&T labels it 5G+ , and Verizon calls it 5G Ultra Wideband . Confusing things even further, AT&T and Verizon also use those respective brands for their mmWave 5G.

The speeds that mmWave can theoretically provide have fueled most of the more wild-eyed forecasts about it—for instance, that it will make self-driving cars possible , which likely sounds absurd to anybody who has struggled to find a mmWave signal where a carrier’s coverage map says it should exist.

How you experience 5G depends on where you sit or stand while using it. If you’re on a low-band 5G connection—the most likely situation unless you’re in or near a city—you may not be impressed. Even the carriers themselves have advised customers not to expect much of a speedup . Though we’ve seen low-band 5G connections exceed 200 megabits per second, we’ve also seen them deliver slower speed-test results than 4G in the same spot.

But if you connect to midband 5G, you’re in for a different experience—one that may leave your home wired broadband looking slow in comparison. Download speeds on these frequencies can easily exceed 400 Mbps and approach 1 Gbps. You may not notice the difference when you’re installing an app, but it should be easy to spot on a laptop or tablet tethered to your phone’s mobile hotspot. However, you’re likely to encounter this enhanced connectivity only in built-up areas in major metropolitan areas, and you may lose a midband signal if you’re indoors.

Should your phone latch on to a millimeter-wave signal, it may feel like you just engaged its hyperdrive—mmWave download speeds generally start at 1 Gbps and can exceed 2 Gbps. But because mmWave’s range is so short ( Verizon puts it at 1,500 feet at best) and restricted to outdoors, you’ll probably find it’s as unreliable as the Millennium Falcon’ s hyperdrive in The Empire Strikes Back . We’ve found that we can’t count on mmWave signals covering even an entire city block—or just reaching all four corners of an intersection.

The wireless carriers have spent tens of billions of dollars on spectrum licenses to build out 5G, but so far that hasn’t appeared to have much effect on their rate plans. Aside from some cheaper limited-data plans and the entry-level “unlimited” offering at Verizon, the big three carriers’ postpaid plans all provide full 5G access and don’t subject it to any extra limits should you want to share this next-gen bandwidth with your laptop or tablet via your phone’s mobile-hotspot feature.

Prepaid services and wireless resellers, however, may rule out 5G or provide only low-band 5G, which you may often see described as “nationwide” 5G. Using any of these offerings is effectively like using a 4G plan.

Midband 5G’s performance and range, meanwhile, have allowed T-Mobile and Verizon to sell “fixed wireless” broadband to homes at just $50 a month (or half that at Verizon for customers already on one of its more expensive unlimited smartphone plans). These services run at speeds that can compete with cable—but without the data caps of so many cable providers, making them especially worth considering if your household hoovers up data on several devices.

The 5G experience can, however, cost you extra when you buy a phone. Millimeter-wave reception requires not just a different radio but also an additional antenna, which can result in mmWave-compatible models costing $50 or so extra—see, for example, the $500 price of the mmWave-ready Pixel 6a that Verizon sells and the $450 price of the mmWave-deprived model that Google sells.

There are two ways to answer that question: best case and likeliest case.

In an ideal situation, mmWave 5G outperforms every other kind, and no carrier has built out millimeter-wave 5G as aggressively as Verizon. AT&T is a distant second in mmWave deployment, and T-Mobile has all but given up on the technology.

But on an everyday basis, multiple third-party tests have shown that T-Mobile’s 5G averages faster, thanks to that carrier’s early and widespread deployment of midband 5G using the 2.5 GHz spectrum it picked up with Sprint when it bought its smaller competitor. In July 2022, Ookla reported that measurements from its widely used Speedtest app showed median 5G download speeds of 187.33 Mbps for T-Mobile, 113.52 Mbps for Verizon, and 71.54 Mbps for AT&T.

Verizon ranks second, not so much because of its early and avid rollout of mmWave but because of its introduction of midband 5G on “C-band” frequencies starting in January. Those signals reach much farther than its mmWave signal, and in the 46 and counting metro areas in which Verizon offers C-band connectivity, they make the carrier much more competitive with T-Mobile.

AT&T ranks a fairly distant third because its own C-band launch in January covered only eight markets (PDF) —Austin, Chicago, Dallas–Fort Worth, Detroit, Houston, Jacksonville, Miami, and Orlando—while its mmWave coverage is even more evanescent than Verizon’s. You’ll have to wait until 2023 to see the situation change in any meaningful way.

But even if you look at midband 5G alone, T-Mobile retains an advantage. As Opensignal analyst Francesco Rizzato summed up speed-test app data published at the end of March : “When connected to mid-band 5G across the U.S., our users experienced average 5G download speeds of 225.5 Mbps on T-Mobile, 211.8 Mbps on Verizon, and 160 Mbps on AT&T.”

Those differences also show up in the various services that resell the big three’s networks. T-Mobile resellers like Mint Mobile stand to offer a better 5G experience than Verizon resellers like Comcast’s Xfinity Mobile.

Because the carriers have invested most in low-band 5G, the answer as to which carrier has the broadest 5G coverage doesn’t amount to much—with low-band, you don’t get a significant speed boost, and you may even find that 5G runs slower than 4G in the same spot.

That said, the service-comparison site WhistleOut checked the coverage of all three carriers and found that T-Mobile’s 5G service reached more of the US as of early July, covering 53.79%. AT&T came in second with 29.52% coverage, followed by Verizon with 12.77%.

The other reason to avoid putting too much weight on this metric: Coverage in places where you don’t live, work, or visit counts for much less than coverage in your usual whereabouts, and raw totals don’t tell you anything about that. You can use WhistleOut’s coverage maps to see how the various phone service providers stack up in your area.

The logical next question is which carriers have the broadest midband service. Again, T-Mobile’s early deployment of 2.5 GHz 5G gives it a commanding lead: The carrier estimates that those frequencies are reaching 225 million people and plans to extend that reach to 260 million by the end of the year. Verizon says it will cover 175 million by the end of 2022 . AT&T is again a distant third, reaching 70 million people with its midband 5G now and saying in its July second-quarter earnings announcement that it remains “on track to approach 100 million people” by year-end.

PCMag’s Best Mobile Networks 2022 project (in which I put in almost 1,700 miles of drive testing ) bore this out. As PCMag’s Sascha Segan writes, this on-the-road testing found that in rural areas, T-Mobile test phones were on midband 43% of the time, versus 9% for Verizon test phones and just 2% for the AT&T phones. The same pattern prevailed in metropolitan areas, too: “Across 19 cities where we felt we had sufficient data,” Segan writes, “we saw T-Mobile’s high-quality 5G UC 78% of the time, compared with Verizon’s 5G UW 20% of the time and AT&T’s 5G+ 7% of the time.”

Between inadequate documentation from phone manufacturers and incomplete support from some carriers (which essentially treat 5G support as a privilege they can ration out), shopping for a 5G phone can be much more work than necessary.

Your compatibility odds are highest with a pricey flagship phone such as a new iPhone or Samsung Galaxy S–series phone. The odds get lower as the handset prices drop—smaller sizes may also prevent mmWave support—and are generally the worst with phones not sold by carriers. For example, although Apple’s current iPhone 13 and SE lines both support midband at all three carriers, only the larger iPhone 13 lineup covers mmWave, too.

If a carrier doesn’t explicitly advertise that a phone works on its fastest frequencies—5G+ on AT&T, Ultra Capacity on T-Mobile, or 5G Ultra Wideband on Verizon—you’ll have to check the phone’s specifications to see which band numbers it supports. The important ones, in terms of getting a faster connection, are n41 (T-Mobile midband), n77 (AT&T and Verizon C-band), and n260 and n261 (Verizon mmWave).

But even the spec sheets can be wrong. Consider, for instance, the Galaxy A52 5G , which Samsung shipped in 2021. Samsung’s specs for that phone show just low-band 5G support, but Phone Scoop’s eagle-eyed founder Rich Brome checked Federal Communications Commission filings to confirm that the A52 supports the important midband frequencies . Earlier this year, I saw the A52 hit midband speeds with a T-Mobile SIM —but on Verizon, it operated as a low-band phone until Verizon shipped a software update for it. And that happened recently enough for Verizon’s supported-phones list to not reflect what PCMag’s independent tally shows.

The promise of 5G has thus far gone unfulfilled, but the industry is taking baby steps toward a faster mobile future. Dish Network is building its own 5G-only network—the government’s approval of T-Mobile’s purchase of Sprint in 2019 required the merged firm to divest Sprint’s prepaid services and some spectrum to Dish , which in turn has committed to cover 70% of the US population by 2023 . Dish launched $30-per-month unlimited service in Las Vegas but supported only a single phone model on that service, an offering that left analysts unimpressed .

The ongoing C-band buildout at AT&T and Verizon promises quicker rewards, especially at the latter carrier, which is off to a faster start and is working to accelerate that deployment further. In March, it announced deals with satellite providers that would help them hand off more of the C-band spectrum they’d been using, which would then allow Verizon to bring C-band to Atlanta, Baltimore, Denver, and Washington, DC, this year .

And yes, the wireless world is starting to make noise about 6G and what it might look like. But the industry has been here before. Conserve your energy and enthusiasm. It’s years too soon for any reality-based phone buyer to spend any mental processing cycles worrying about that.

This article was edited by Arthur Gies and Jason Chen.

Meet your guide

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• Published: 16 March 2021

5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz

• Ken Karipidis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7538-7447 1 ,
• Rohan Mate 1 ,
• David Urban 1 ,
• Rick Tinker 1 &
• Andrew Wood 2  

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume  31 ,  pages 585–605 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The increased use of radiofrequency (RF) fields above 6 GHz, particularly for the 5 G mobile phone network, has given rise to public concern about any possible adverse effects to human health. Public exposure to RF fields from 5 G and other sources is below the human exposure limits specified by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). This state-of-the science review examined the research into the biological and health effects of RF fields above 6 GHz at exposure levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits. The review included 107 experimental studies that investigated various bioeffects including genotoxicity, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell signalling, membrane function and other effects. Reported bioeffects were generally not independently replicated and the majority of the studies employed low quality methods of exposure assessment and control. Effects due to heating from high RF energy deposition cannot be excluded from many of the results. The review also included 31 epidemiological studies that investigated exposure to radar, which uses RF fields above 6 GHz similar to 5 G. The epidemiological studies showed little evidence of health effects including cancer at different sites, effects on reproduction and other diseases. This review showed no confirmed evidence that low-level RF fields above 6 GHz such as those used by the 5 G network are hazardous to human health. Future experimental studies should improve the experimental design with particular attention to dosimetry and temperature control. Future epidemiological studies should continue to monitor long-term health effects in the population related to wireless telecommunications.

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Radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure assessment: a pilot study on mobile phone signal strength and transmitted power levels

Meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies of the biological effects of low-level millimetre waves

Radio-frequency electromagnetic field exposure and contribution of sources in the general population: an organ-specific integrative exposure assessment

Introduction.

There are continually emerging technologies that use radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields particularly in telecommunications. Most telecommunication sources currently operate at frequencies below 6 GHz, including radio and TV broadcasting and wireless sources such as local area networks and mobile telephony. With the increasing demand for higher data rates, better quality of service and lower latency to users, future wireless telecommunication sources are planned to operate at frequencies above 6 GHz and into the ‘millimetre wave’ range (30–300 GHz) [ 1 ]. Frequencies above 6 GHz have been in use for many years in various applications such as radar, microwave links, airport security screening and in medicine for therapeutic applications. However, the planned use of millimetre waves by future wireless telecommunications, particularly the 5th generation (5 G) of mobile networks, has given rise to public concern about any possible adverse effects to human health.

The interaction mechanisms of RF fields with the human body have been extensively described and tissue heating is the main effect for RF fields above 100 kHz (e.g. HPA; SCENHIR) [ 2 , 3 ]. RF fields become less penetrating into body tissue with increasing frequency and for frequencies above 6 GHz the depth of penetration is relatively short with surface heating being the predominant effect [ 4 ].

International exposure guidelines for RF fields have been developed on the basis of current scientific knowledge to ensure that RF exposure is not harmful to human health [ 5 , 6 ]. The guidelines developed by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in particular form the basis for regulations in the majority of countries worldwide [ 7 ]. In the frequency range above 6 GHz and up to 300 GHz the ICNIRP guidelines prevent excessive heating at the surface of the skin and in the eye.

Although not as extensively studied as RF fields at lower frequencies, a number of studies have investigated the effects of RF fields at frequencies above 6 GHz. Previous reviews have reported studies investigating frequencies above 6 GHz that show effects although many of the reported effects occurred at levels greater than the ICNIRP guidelines [ 1 , 8 ]. Given the public concern over the planned roll-out of 5 G using millimetre waves, it is important to determine whether there are any related adverse health consequences at levels encountered in the environment. The aim of this paper is to present a state-of-the-science review of the bioeffects research into RF fields above 6 GHz at low levels of exposure (exposure below the occupational limits of the ICNIRP guidelines). A meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies, providing quantitative effect estimates for each study, is presented separately in a companion paper [ 9 ].

The state-of-the-science review included a comprehensive search of all available literature and examined the extent, range and nature of evidence into the bioeffects of RF fields above 6 GHz, at levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits. The review consisted of biomedical studies on low-level RF electromagnetic fields from 6 GHz to 300 GHz published at any starting date up to December 2019. Studies were initially found by searching the databases PubMed, EMF-Portal, Google Scholar, Embase and Web of Science using the search terms “millimeter wave”, “millimetre wave”, “gigahertz”, “GHz” and “radar”. We further searched major reviews published by health authorities on RF and health [ 2 , 3 , 10 , 11 ]. Finally, we searched the reference list of all the studies included. Studies were only included if the full paper was available in English.

Although over 300 studies were considered, this review was limited to experimental studies (in vitro, in vivo, human) where the stated RF exposure level was at or below the occupational whole-body limits specified by the ICNIRP (2020) guidelines: power density (PD) reference level of 50 W/m 2 or specific absorption rate (SAR) basic restriction of 0.4 W/kg. Since the PD occupational limits for local exposure are more relevant to in vitro studies, and since these limits are higher, we have included those studies with PD up to 100–200 W/m 2 , depending on frequency. The review included studies below the ICNIRP general public limits that are lower than the occupational limits.

The review also included epidemiological studies (cohort, case-control, cross-sectional) investigating exposure to radar but excluded studies where the stated radar frequencies were below 6 GHz. Epidemiological studies on radar were included as they represent occupational exposure below the ICNIRP guidelines. Case reports or case series were excluded. Studies investigating therapeutical outcomes were also excluded unless they reported specific bio-effects.

The state-of-the-science review appraised the quality of the included studies, but unlike a systematic review it did not exclude any studies based on quality. The review also identified gaps in knowledge for future investigation and research. The reporting of results in this paper is narrative with tabular accompaniment showing study characteristics. In this paper, the acronym “MMWs” (or millimetre waves) is used to denote RF fields above 6 GHz.

The review included 107 experimental studies (91 in vitro, 15 in vivo, and 1 human) that investigated various bioeffects, including genotoxicity, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell signalling, membrane function and other effects. The exposure characteristics and biological system investigated in experimental studies for the various bioeffects are shown in Tables  1 – 6 . The results of the meta-analysis of the in vitro and in vivo studies are presented separately in Wood et al. [ 9 ].

Genotoxicity

Studies have examined the effects of exposing whole human or mouse blood samples or lymphocytes and leucocytes to low-level MMWs to determine possible genotoxicity. Some of the genotoxicity studies have looked at the possible effects of MMWs on chromosome aberrations [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. At exposure levels below the ICNIRP limits, the results have been inconsistent, with either a statistically significant increase [ 14 ] or no significant increase [ 12 , 13 ] in chromosome aberrations.

MMWs do not penetrate past the skin therefore epithelial and skin cells have been a common model of examination for possible genotoxic effects. DNA damage in a number of epithelial and skin cell types and at varied exposure parameters both below and above the ICNIRP limits have been examined using comet assays [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the varied exposure models and methods used, no statistically significant evidence of DNA damage was identified in these studies. Evidence of genotoxic damage was further assessed in skin cells by the occurrence of micro-nucleation. De Amicis et al. [ 18 ] and Franchini et al. [ 19 ] reported a statistically significant increase in micro-nucleation, however, Hintzsche et al. [ 15 ] and Koyama et al. [ 16 , 17 ] did not find an effect. Two of the studies also examined telomere length and found no statistically significant difference between exposed and unexposed cells [ 15 , 19 ]. Last, a Ukrainian research group examined different skin cell types in three studies and reported an increase in chromosome condensation in the nucleus [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]; these results have not been independently verified. Overall, there was no confirmed evidence of MMWs causing genotoxic damage in epithelial and skin cells.

Three studies from an Indian research group have examined indicators of DNA damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in rats exposed in vivo to MMWs. The studies reported DNA strand breaks based on evidence from comet assays [ 23 , 24 ] and changes in enzymes that control the build-up of ROS [ 24 ]. Kumar et al. also reported an increase in ROS production [ 25 ]. All the studies from this research group had low animal numbers (six animals exposed) and their results have not been independently replicated. An in vitro study that investigated ROS production in yeast cultures reported an increase in free radicals exposed to high-level but not low-level MMWs [ 26 ].

Other studies have looked at the effect of low-level MMWs on DNA in a range of different ways. Two studies reported that MMWs induce colicin synthesis and prophage induction in bacterial cells, both of which are suggested as indicative of DNA damage [ 27 , 28 ]. Another study suggested that DNA exposed to MMWs undergoes polymerase chain reaction synthesis differently than unexposed DNA [ 29 ], although no statistical analysis was presented. Hintzsche et al. reported statistically significant occurrence of spindle disturbance in hybrid cells exposed to MMWs [ 30 ]. Zeni et al. found no evidence of DNA damage or alteration of cell cycle kinetics in blood cells exposed to MMWs [ 31 ]. Last, two studies from a Russian research group examined the protective effects of MMWs where mouse blood leukocytes were pre-exposed to low-level MMWs and then to X-rays [ 32 , 33 ]. The studies reported that there was statistically significant less DNA damage in the leucocytes that were pre-exposed to MMWs than those exposed to X-rays alone. Overall, these studies had no independent replication.

Cell proliferation

A number of studies have examined the effects of low-level MMWs on cell proliferation and they have used a variety of cellular models and methods of investigation. Studies have exposed bacterial cells to low-level MMWs alone or in conjunction with other agents. Two early studies reported changes in the growth rate of E. coli cultures exposed to low-level MMWs; however, both of these studies were preliminary in nature without appropriate dosimetry or statistical analysis [ 34 , 35 ]. Two studies exposed E. coli cultures and one study exposed yeast cell cultures to MMWs alone, and before and after UVC exposure [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. All three studies reported that MMWs alone had no significant effect on bacterial cell proliferation or survival. Rojavin et al., however, did report that when E. coli bacteria were exposed to MMWs after UVC sterilisation treatment, there was an increase in their survival rate [ 36 ]. The authors suggested this could be due to the MMW activation of bacterial DNA repair mechanisms. Other studies by an Armenian research group reported a reduction in E. coli cell growth when exposed to MMWs [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. These studies reported that when E.coli cultures were exposed to MMWs in the presence of antibiotics, there was a greater reduction in the bacterial growth rate and an increase in the time between bacterial cell division compared with antibiotics exposure alone. Two of these studies investigated if these effects could be due to a reduction in the activity of the E. coli ATPase when exposed to MMWs. The studies reported exposure to MMWs in combination with particular antibiotics changed the concentration of H + and K + ions in the E.coli cells, which the authors linked to changes in ATPase activity [ 43 , 44 ]. Overall, the results from studies on cell proliferation of bacterial cells have been inconsistent with different research groups reporting conflicting results.

Studies have also examined how exposure to low-level MMWs could affect cell proliferation in yeast. Two early studies by a German research group reported changes in yeast cell growth [ 46 , 47 ]. However, another two independent studies did not report any changes in the growth rate of exposed yeast [ 48 , 49 ]. Furia et al. [ 48 ] noted that the Grundler and Keilmann studies [ 46 , 47 ] had a number of methodical issues, which may have skewed their results, such as poor exposure control and analysis of results. Another study exposed yeast to MMWs before and after UVC exposure and reported that MMWs did not change the rates of cell survival [ 37 ].

Studies have also examined the possible effect of low-level MMWs on tumour cells with some studies reporting a possible anti-proliferative effect. Chidichimo et al. reported a reduction in the growth of a variety of tumour cells exposed to MMWs; however, the results of the study did not support this conclusion [ 50 ]. An Italian research group published a number of studies investigating proliferation effects on human melanoma cell lines with conflicting results. Two of the studies reported reduced growth rate [ 51 , 52 ] and a third study showed no change in proliferation or in the cell cycle [ 53 ]. Beneduci et al. also reported changes in the morphology of MMW exposed cells; however, the authors did not present quantitative data for these reported changes [ 51 , 52 ]. In another study by the same Italian group, Beneduci et al. reported that exposure to low-level MMWs had a greater than 40% reduction in the number of viable erythromyeloid leukaemia cells compared with controls; however, there was no significant change in the number of dead cells [ 54 ]. More recently, Yaekashiwa et al. reported no statistically significant effect in proliferation or cellular activity in glioblastoma cells exposed to low-level MMWs [ 55 ].

Other studies did not report statistically significant effects on proliferation in chicken embryo cell cultures, rat nerve cells or human skin fibroblasts exposed to low-level MMWs [ 55 , 56 , 57 ].

Gene expression

Some studies have investigated whether low-level MMWs can influence gene expression. Le Queument et al. examined a multitude of genes using microarray analyses and reported transient expression changes in five of them. However, the authors concluded that these results were extremely minor, especially when compared with studies using microarrays to study known pollutants [ 58 ]. Studies by a French research group have examined the effect of MMWs on stress sensitive genes, stress sensitive gene promotors and chaperone proteins in human glial cell lines. In two studies, glial cells were exposed to low-level MMWs and there was no observed modification in the expression of stress sensitive gene promotors when compared with sham exposed cells [ 59 , 60 , 61 ]. Further, glial cells were examined for the expression of the chaperone protein clusterin (CLU) and heat shock protein HSP70. These proteins are activated in times of cellular stress to maintain protein functions and help with the repair process [ 60 ]. There was no observed modification in gene expression of the chaperone proteins. Other studies have examined the endoplasmic reticulum of glial cells exposed to MMWs [ 62 , 63 ]. The endoplasmic reticulum is the site of synthesis and folding of secreted proteins and has been shown to be sensitive to environmental insults [ 62 ]. The authors reported that there was no elevation in mRNA expression levels of endoplasmic reticulum specific chaperone proteins. Studies of stress sensitive genes in glial cells have consistently shown no modification due to low-level MMW exposure [ 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

Belyaev and co-authors have studied a possible resonance effect of low-level MMWs primarily on Escherichia Coli (E. coli) cells and cultures. The Belyaev research group reported that the resonance effect of MMWs can change the conformation state of chromosomal DNA complexes [ 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]; however, most of these experiments were not temperature controlled. This resonance effect was not supported by earlier experiments on a number of different cell types conducted by Gandhi et al. and Bush et al. [ 75 , 76 ].

The results of Belyaev and co-workers have primarily been based on evidence from the anomalous viscosity time dependence (AVTD) method [ 77 ]. The research group argued that changes in the AVTD curve can indicate changes to the DNA conformation state and DNA-protein bonds. Belyaev and co-workers have reported in a number of studies that differences in the AVTD curve were dependent on several parameter including MMW characteristics (frequency, exposure level, and polarisation), cellular concentration and cell growth rate [ 69 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]. In some of the Belyaev studies E. coli were pre-exposed to X-rays, which was reported to change the AVTD curve; however, if the cells were then exposed to MMWs there was no longer a change in the AVTD curve [ 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. The authors suggested that exposure to MMWs increased the rate of recovery in bacterial cells previously exposed to ionising radiation. The Belyaev group also used rat thymocytes in another study and they concluded that the results closely paralleled those found in E. coli cells [ 67 ]. The studies on the DNA conformation state change relied heavily on the AVTD method that has only been used by the Balyaev group and has not been independently validated [ 78 ].

Cell signalling and electrical activity

Studies examining effects of low-level MMWs on cell signalling have mainly involved MMW exposure to nervous system tissue of various animals. An in vivo study on rats recorded extracellular background electrical spike activity from neurons in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus after MMW exposure [ 79 ]. The study reported that there were changes in inter-spike interval and spike activity in the cells of exposed animals when compared with controls. There was also a mixture of significant shifts in neuron population proportions and spike frequency. The effect on the regularity of neuron spike activity was greater at higher frequencies. An in vitro study on rat cortical tissue slices reported that neuron firing rates decreased in half of the samples exposed to low-level MMWs [ 80 ]. The width of the signals was also decreased but all effects were short lived. The observed changes were not consistent between the two studies, but this could be a consequence of different brain regions being studied.

In vitro experiments by a Japanese research group conducted on crayfish exposed the dissected optical components and brain to MMWs [ 81 , 82 ]. Munemori and Ikeda reported that there was no significant change in the inter-spike intervals or amplitude of spontaneous discharges [ 81 ]. However, there was a change in the distribution of inter-spike intervals where the initial standard deviation decreased and then restored in a short time to a rhythm comparable to the control. A follow-up study on the same tissues and a wide range of exposure levels (many above the ICNIRP limits) reported similar results with the distribution of spike intervals decreasing with increasing exposure level [ 82 ]. These results on action potentials in crayfish tissue have not been independently investigated.

Mixed results were reported in experiments conducted by a US research group on sciatic frog nerve preparations. These studies applied electrical stimulation to the nerve and examined the effect of MMWs on the compound action potentials (CAPs) conductivity through the neurological tissue fibre. Pakhomov et al. found a reduction in CAP latency accompanied by an amplitude increase for MMWs above the ICNIRP limits but not for low-level MMWs [ 83 ]. However, in two follow-up studies, Pakhomov et al. reported that the attenuation in amplitude of test CAPs caused by high-rate stimulus was significantly reduced to the same magnitude at various MMW exposure levels [ 84 , 85 ]. In all of these studies, the observed effect on the CAPs was temporal and reversible, but there were implications of a frequency specific resonance interaction with the nervous tissue. These results on action potentials in frog sciatic nerves have not been investigated by others.

Other common experimental systems involved low-level MMW exposure to isolated ganglia of leeches. Pikov and Siegel reported that there was a decrease in the firing rate in one of the tested neurons and, through the measurement of input resistance in an inserted electrode, there was a transient dose-dependent change in membrane permeability [ 86 ]. However, Romanenko et al. found that low-level MMWs did not cause suppression of neuron firing rate [ 87 ]. Further experiments by Romanenko et al. reported that MMWs at the ICNIRP public exposure limit and above reported similar action potential firing rate suppression [ 88 ]. Significant differences were reported between MMW effects and effects due to an equivalent rise in temperature caused by heating the bathing solution by conventional means.

Membrane effects

Studies examining membrane interactions with low-level MMWs have all been conducted at frequencies above 40 GHz in in vitro experiments. A number of studies investigated membrane phase transitions involving exposure to a range of phospholipid vesicles prepared to mimic biological cell membranes. One group of studies by an Italian research group reported effects on membrane hydration dynamics and phase transition [ 89 , 90 , 91 ]. Observations included transition delays from the gel to liquid phase or vice versa when compared with sham exposures maintained at the same temperature; the effect was reversed after exposure. These reported changes remain unconfirmed by independent groups.

A number of studies investigated membrane permeability. One study focussed on Ca 2+ activated K + channels on the membrane surface of cultured kidney cells of African Green Marmosets [ 92 ]. The study reported modifications to the Hill coefficient and apparent affinity of the Ca 2+ by the K + channels. Another study reported that the effectiveness of a chemical to supress membrane permeability in the gap junction was transiently reduced when the cells were exposed to MMWs [ 93 , 94 ]. Two studies by one research group reported increases in the movement of molecules into skin cells during MMW exposure and suggested this indicates increased cell membrane permeability [ 21 , 91 ]. Permeability changes based on membrane pressure differences were also investigated in relation to phospholipid organisation [ 95 ]. Although there was no evidence of effects on phospholipid organisation on exposed model membranes, the authors reported a measurable difference in membrane pressure at low exposure levels. Another study reported neuron shrinkage and dehydration of brain tissues [ 96 ]. The study reported this was due to influences of low-level MMWs on the cellular bathing medium and intracellular water. Further, the authors suggested this influence of MMWs may have led to formation of unknown messengers, which are able to modulate brain cell hydration. A study using an artificial axon system consisting of a network of cells containing aqueous phospholipid vesicles reported permeability changes with exposure to MMWs by measuring K + efflux [ 97 ]. In this case, the authors emphasised limitations in applying this model to processes within a living organism. The varied effects of low-level MMWs on membrane permeability lack replication.

Other studies have examined the shape or size of vesicles to determine possible effects on membrane permeability. Ramundo-Orlando et al., reported effects on the shape of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), specifically elongation, attributed to permeability changes [ 98 ]. However, another study reported that only smaller diameter vesicles demonstrated a statistically significant change when exposed to MMWs [ 99 ]. A study by Cosentino et al. examined the effect of MMWs on the size distributions of both large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) and GUVs in in vitro preparations [ 100 ]. It was reported that size distribution was only affected when the vesicles were under osmotic stress, resulting in a statistically significant reduction in their size. In this case, the effect was attributed to dehydration as a result of membrane permeability changes. There is, generally, lack of replication on physical changes to phospholipid vesicles due to low-level MMWs.

Studies on E. coli and E. hirae cultures have reported resonance effects on membrane proteins and phospholipid constituents or within the media suspension [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. These studies observed cell proliferation effects such as changes to cell growth rate, viability and lag phase duration. These effects were reported to be more pronounced at specific MMW frequencies. The authors suggested this could be due to a resonance effect on the cell membrane or the suspension medium. Torgomyan et al. and Hovnanyan et al. reported similar changes to proliferation that they attributed to changes in membrane permeability from MMW exposure [ 43 , 45 ]. These experiments were all conducted by an Armenian research group and have not been replicated by others.

Other effects

A number of studies have reported on the experimental results of other effects. Reproductive effects were examined in three studies on mice, rats and human spermatozoa. An in vivo study on mice exposed to low-level MMWs reported that spermatogonial cells had significantly more metaphase translocation disturbances than controls and an increased number of cells with unpaired chromosomes [ 101 ]. Another in vivo study on rats reported increased morphological abnormalities to spermatozoa following exposure, however, there was no statistical analysis presented [ 102 ]. Conversely, an in vitro study on human spermatozoa reported that there was an increase in motility after a short time of exposure to MMWs with no changes in membrane integrity and no generation of apoptosis [ 103 ]. All three of these studies looked at different effects on spermatozoa making it difficult to make an overall conclusion. A further two studies exposed rats to MMWs and examined their sperm for indicators of ROS production. One study reported both increases and decreases in enzymes that control the build-up of ROS [ 104 ]. The other study reported a decrease in the activity of histone kinase and an increase in ROS [ 105 ]. Both studies had low animal numbers (six animals exposed) and these results have not been independently replicated.

Immune function was also examined in a limited number of studies focussing on the effects of low-level MMWs on antigens and antibody systems. Three studies by a Russian research group that exposed neutrophils to MMWs reported frequency dependant changes in ROS production [ 106 , 107 , 108 ]. Another study reported a statistically significant decrease in antigen binding to antibodies when exposed to MMWs [ 109 ]; the study also reported that exposure decreased the stability of previously formed antigen–antibody complexes.

The effect on fatty acid composition in mice exposed to MMWs has been examined by a Russian research group using a number of experimental methods [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. One study that exposed mice afflicted with an inflammatory condition to low-level MMWs reported no change in the fatty acid concentrations in the blood plasma. However, there was a significant increase in the omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of the thymus [ 110 ]. Another study exposed tumour-bearing mice and reported that monounsaturated fatty acids decreased and polyunsaturated fatty acids increased in both the thymus and tumour tissue. These changes resulted in fatty acid composition of the thymus tissue more closely resembling that of the healthy control animals [ 111 ]. The authors also examined the effect of exposure to X-rays of healthy mice, which was reported to reduce the total weight of the thymus. However, when the thymus was exposed to MMWs before or after exposure to X-rays, the fatty acid content was restored and was no longer significantly different from controls [ 112 ]. Overall, the authors reported a potential protective effect of MMWs on the recovery of fatty acids, however, all the results came from the same research group with a lack of replication from others.

Physiological effects were examined by a study conducted on mice exposed to WWMs to assess the safety of police radar [ 113 ]. The authors reported no statistically significant changes in the physiological parameters tested, which included body mass and temperature, peripheral blood and the mass and cellular composition, and number of cells in several important organs. Another study exposing human volunteers to low-level MMWs specifically examined cardiovascular function of exposed and sham exposed groups by electrocardiogram (ECG) and atrioventricular conduction velocity derivation [ 114 ]. This study reported that there were no significant differences in the physiological indicators assessed in test subjects.

Other individual studies have looked at various other effects. An early study reported differences in the attenuation of MMWs at specific frequencies in healthy and tumour cells [ 115 ]. Another early study reported no effect in the morphology of BHK-21/C13 cell cultures when exposed to low-level MMWs; the study did report morphological changes at higher levels, which were related to heating [ 116 ]. One study examined whether low-level MMWs induced cancer promotion in leukaemia and Lewis tumour cell grafted mice. The study reported no statistically significant growth promotion in either of the grafted cancer cell types [ 117 ]. Another study looked at the activity of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase enzyme in rats after treatment with hydrocortisone and exposure to MMWs [ 118 ]. The study reported no effects at exposures below the ICNIRP limit, however, at levels above authors reported a range of effects. Another study exposed saline liquid solutions to continuous low and high level MMWs and reported temperature oscillations within the liquid medium but lacked a statistical analysis [ 119 ]. Another study reported that low-level MMWs decrease the mobility of the protozoa S. ambiguum offspring [ 120 ]. None of the reported effects in all of these other studies have been investigated elsewhere.

Epidemiological studies

There are no epidemiological studies that have directly investigated 5 G and potential health effects. There are however epidemiological studies that have looked at occupational exposure to radar, which could potentially include the frequency range from 6 to 300 GHz. Epidemiological studies on radar were included as they represent occupational exposure below the ICNIRP guidelines. The review included 31 epidemiological studies (8 cohort, 13 case-control, 9 cross-sectional and 1 meta-analysis) that investigated exposure to radar and various health outcomes including cancer at different sites, effects on reproduction and other diseases. The risk estimates as well as limitations of the epidemiological studies are shown in Table  7 .

Three large cohort studies investigated mortality in military personnel with potential exposure to MMWs from radar. Studies reporting on over 40-year follow-up of US navy veterans of the Korean War found that radar exposure had little effect on all-cause or cancer mortality with the second study reporting risk estimates below unity [ 121 , 122 ]. Similarly, in a 40-year follow-up of Belgian military radar operators, there was no statistically significant increase in all-cause mortality [ 123 , 124 ]; the study did, however, find a small increase in cancer mortality. More recently in a 25-year follow-up of military personnel who served in the French Navy, there was no increase in all-cause or cancer mortality for personnel exposed to radar [ 125 ]. The main limitation in the cohort studies was the lack of individual levels of RF exposure with most studies based on job-title. Comparisons were made between occupations with presumed high exposure to RF fields and other occupations with presumed lower exposure. This type of non-differential misclassification in dichotomous exposure assessment is associated mostly with an effect measure biased towards a null effect if there is a true effect of RF fields. If there is no true effect of RF fields, non-differential exposure misclassification will not bias the effect estimate (which will be close to the null value, but may vary because of random error). The military personnel in these studies were compared with the general population and this ‘healthy worker effect’ presents possible bias since military personnel are on average in better health than the general population; the healthy worker effect tends to underestimate the risk. The cohort studies also lacked information on possible confounding factors including other occupational exposures such as chemicals and lifestyle factors such as smoking.

Several epidemiological studies have specifically investigated radar exposure and testicular cancer. In a case-control study where most of the subjects were selected from military hospitals in Washington DC, USA, Hayes et al. found no increased risk between exposure to radar and testicular cancer [ 126 ]; exposure to radar was self-reported and thus subject to misclassification. In this study, the misclassification was likely non-differential, biasing the result towards the null. Davis and Mostofi reported a cluster of testicular cancer within a small cohort of 340 police officers in Washington State (USA) where the cases routinely used handheld traffic radar guns [ 127 ]; however, exposure was not assessed for the full cohort, which may have overestimated the risk. In a population-based case-control study conducted in Sweden, Hardell et al. did not find a statistically significant association between radar work and testicular cancer; however, the result was based on only five radar workers questioning the validity of this result [ 128 ]. In a larger population-based case control study in Germany, Baumgardt-Elms et al. also reported no association between working near radar units (both self-reported and expert assessed) and testicular cancer [ 129 ]; a limitation of this study was the low participation of identified controls (57%), however, there was no difference compared with the characteristics of the cases so selection bias was unlikely. In the cohort study of US navy veterans previously mentioned exposure to radar was not associated with testicular cancer [ 122 ]; the limitations of this cohort study mentioned earlier may have underestimated the risk. Finally, in a hospital-based case-control study in France, radar workers were also not associated with risk of testicular cancer [ 130 ]; a limitation was the low participation of controls (37%) with a difference in education level between participating and non-participating controls, which may have underestimated this result.

A limited number of studies have investigated radar exposure and brain cancer. In a nested case-control study within a cohort of male US Air Force personnel, Grayson reported a small association between brain cancer and RF exposure, which included radar [ 131 ]; no potential confounders were included in the analysis, which may have overestimated the result. However, in a case-control study of personnel in the Brazilian Navy, Santana et al. reported no association between naval occupations likely to be exposed to radar and brain cancer [ 132 ]; the small number of cases and lack of diagnosis confirmation may have biased the results towards the null. All of the cohort studies on military personnel previously mentioned also examined brain cancer mortality and found no association with exposure to radar [ 122 , 124 , 125 ].

A limited number of studies have investigated radar exposure and ocular cancer. Holly et al. in a population-based case-control study in the US reported an association between self-reported exposure to radar or microwaves and uveal melanoma [ 133 ]; the study investigated many different exposures and the result is prone to multiple testing. In another case-control study, which used both hospital and population controls, Stang et al. did not find an association between self-reported exposure to radar and uveal melanoma [ 134 ]; a high non-response in the population controls (52%) and exposure misclassification may have underestimated this result. The cohort studies of the Belgian military and French navy also found no association between exposure to radar and ocular cancer [ 124 , 125 ].

A few other studies have examined the potential association between radar and other cancers. In a hospital-based case-control study in Italy, La Vecchia investigated 14 occupational agents and risk of bladder cancer and found no association with radar, although no risk estimate was reported [ 135 ]; non-differential self-reporting of exposure may have underestimated this finding if there is a true effect. Finkelstein found an increased risk for melanoma in a large cohort of Ontario police officers exposed to traffic radar and followed for 31 years [ 136 ]; there was significant loss to follow up which may have biased this result in either direction. Finkelstein found no statistically significant associations with other types of cancer and the study reported a statistically significant risk estimate just below unity for all cancers, which is reflective of the healthy worker effect [ 136 ]. In a large population-based case-control study in France, Fabbro-Peray et al. investigated a large number of occupational and environmental risk factors in relation to non-Hodgkin lymphoma and found no association with radar operators based on job-title; however, the result was based on a small number of radar operators [ 137 ]. The cohort studies on military personnel did not find statistically significant associations between exposure to radar and other cancers [ 122 , 124 , 125 ].

Variani et al. conducted a recent systematic review and meta-analysis investigating occupational exposure to radar and cancer risk [ 138 ]. The meta-analysis included three cohort studies [ 122 , 124 , 125 ] and three case-control studies [ 129 , 130 , 131 ] for a total sample size of 53,000 subjects. The meta-analysis reported a decrease in cancer risk for workers exposed to radar but noted the small number of studies included with significant heterogeneity between the studies.

Apart from cancer, a number of epidemiological studies have investigated radar exposure and reproductive outcomes. Two early studies on military personnel in the US [ 139 ] and Denmark [ 140 ] reported differences in semen parameters between personnel using radar and personnel on other duty assignments; these studies included only volunteers with potential fertility concerns and are prone to bias. A further volunteer study on US military personnel did not find a difference in semen parameters in a similar comparison [ 141 ]; in general these type of cross-sectional investigations on volunteers provide limited evidence on possible risk. In a case-control study of personnel in the French military, Velez de la Calle et al. reported no association between exposure to radar and male infertility [ 142 ]; non-differential self-reporting of exposure may have underestimated this finding if there is a true effect. In two separate cross-sectional studies of personnel in the Norwegian navy, Baste et al. and Møllerløkken et al. reported an association between exposure to radar and male infertility, but there has been no follow up cohort or case control studies to confirm these results [ 143 , 144 ].

Again considering reproduction, a number of studies investigated pregnancy and offspring outcomes. In a population-based case-control study conducted in the US and Canada, De Roos et al. found no statistically significant association between parental occupational exposure to radar and neuroblastoma in offspring; however, the result was based on a small number of cases and controls exposed to radar [ 145 ]. In another cross-sectional study of the Norwegian navy, Mageroy et al. reported a higher risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of personnel who were exposed to radar; the study found positive associations with a large number of other chemical and physical exposures, but the study involved multiple comparisons so is prone to over-interpretation [ 146 ]. Finally, a number of pregnancy outcomes were investigated in a cohort study of Norwegian navy personnel enlisted between 1950 and 2004 [ 147 ]. The study reported an increase in perinatal mortality for parental service aboard fast patrol boats during a short period (3 months); exposure to radar was one of many possible exposures when serving on fast patrol boats and the result is prone to multiple testing. No associations were found between long-term exposure and any pregnancy outcomes.

There is limited research investigating exposure to radar and other diseases. In a large case-control study of US military veterans investigating a range of risk factors and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Beard et al. did not find a statistically significant association with radar [ 148 ]; the study reported a likely under-ascertainment of non-exposed cases, which may have biased the result away from the null. The cohort studies on military personnel did not find statistically significant associations between exposure to radar and other diseases [ 122 , 124 , 125 ].

A number of observational studies have investigated outcomes measured on volunteers in the laboratory. They are categorised as epidemiological studies because exposure to radar was not based on provocation. These studies investigated genotoxicity [ 149 ], oxidative stress [ 149 ], cognitive effects [ 150 ] and endocrine function [ 151 ]; the studies generally reported positive associations with radar. These volunteer studies did not sample from a defined population and are prone to bias [ 152 ].

The experimental studies investigating exposure to MMWs at levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits have looked at a variety of biological effects. Genotoxicity was mainly examined by using comet assays of exposed cells. This approach has consistently found no evidence of DNA damage in skin cells in well-designed studies. However, animal studies conducted by one research group reported DNA strand breaks and changes in enzymes that control the build-up of ROS, noting that these studies had low animal numbers (six animals exposed); these results have not been independently replicated. Studies have also investigated other indications of genotoxicity including chromosome aberrations, micro-nucleation and spindle disturbances. The methods used to investigate these indicators have generally been rigorous; however, the studies have reported contradictory results. Two studies by a Russian research group have also reported indicators of DNA damage in bacteria, however, these results have not been verified by other investigators.

The studies of the effect of MMWs on cell proliferation primarily focused on bacteria, yeast cells and tumour cells. Studies of bacteria were mainly from an Armenian research group that reported a reduction in the bacterial growth rate of exposed E. coli cells at different MMW frequencies; however, the studies suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control and heating due to high RF energy deposition may have contributed to the results. Other authors have reported no effect of MMWs on E. coli cell growth rate. The results on cell proliferation of yeast exposed to MMWs were also contradictory. An Italian research group that has conducted the majority of the studies on tumour cells reported either a reduction or no change in the proliferation of exposed cells; however, these studies also suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control.

The studies on gene expression mainly examined two different indicators, expression of stress sensitive genes and chaperone proteins and the occurrence of a resonance effect in cells to explain DNA conformation state changes. Most studies reported no effect of low-level MMWs on the expression of stress sensitive genes or chaperone proteins using a range of experimental methods to confirm these results; noting that these studies did not use blinding so experimental bias cannot be excluded from the results. A number of studies from a Russian research group reported a resonance effect of MMWs, which they propose can change the conformation state of chromosomal DNA complexes. Their results relied heavily on the AVTD method for testing changes in the DNA conformation state, however, the biological relevance of results obtained through the AVTD method has not been independently validated.

Studies on cell signalling and electrical activity reported a range of different outcomes including increases or decreases in signal amplitude and changes in signal rhythm, with no consistent effect noting the lack of blinding in most of the studies. Further, temperature contributions could not be eliminated from the studies and in some cases thermal interactions by conventional heating were studied and found to differ from the MMW effects. The results from some studies were based on small sample sizes, some being confined to a single specimen, or by observed effects only occurring in a small number of the samples tested. Overall, the reported electrical activity effects could not be dismissed as being within normal variability. This is indicated by studies reporting the restoration of normal function within a short time during ongoing exposure. In this case there is no implication of an expected negative health outcome.

Studies on membrane effects examined changes in membrane properties and permeability. Some studies observed changes in transitions from liquid to gel phase or vice versa and the authors implied that MMWs influenced cell hydration, however the statistical methods used in these studies were not described so it is difficult to examine the validity of these results. Other studies observing membrane properties in artificial cell suspensions and dissected tissue reported changes in vesicle shape, reduced cell volume and morphological changes although most of these studies suffered from various methodological problems including poor temperature control and no blinding. Experiments on bacteria and yeast were conducted by the same research group reporting changes in membrane permeability, which was attributed to cell proliferation effects, however, the studies suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control. Overall, although there were a variety of membrane bioeffects reported, these have not been independently replicated.

The limited number of studies on a number of other effects from exposure to MMWs below the ICNIRP limits generally reported little to no consistent effects. The single in vivo study on cancer promotion did not find an effect although the study did not include sham controls. Effects on reproduction were contradictory that may have been influenced by opposing objectives of examining adverse health effects or infertility treatment. Further, the only study on human sperm found no effects of low-level MMWs. The studies on reproduction suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control, and since sperm is sensitive to temperature, the effect of heating due to high RF energy deposition may have contributed to the studies showing an effect. A number of studies from two research groups reported effects on ROS production in relation to reproduction and immune function; the in vivo studies had low animal numbers (six animals per exposure) and the in vitro studies generally had inadequate dosimetry and temperature control. Studies on fatty acid composition and physiological indicators did not generally show any effects; poor temperature control was also a problem in the majority of these studies. A number of other studies investigating various other biological effects reported mixed results.

Although a range of bioeffects have been reported in many of the experimental studies, the results were generally not independently reproduced. Approximately half of the studies were from just five laboratories and several studies represented a collaboration between one or more laboratories. The exposure characteristics varied considerably among the different studies with studies showing the highest effect size clustered around a PD of approximately 1 W/m 2 . The meta-analysis of the experimental studies in our companion paper [ 9 ] showed that there was no dose-response relationship between the exposure (either PD or SAR) and the effect size. In fact, studies with a higher exposure tended to show a lower effect size, which is counterfactual. Most of the studies showing a large effect size were conducted in the frequency range around 40–55 GHz, representing investigations into the use of MMWs for therapeutic purposes, rather than deleterious health consequences. Future experimental research would benefit from investigating bioeffects at the specific frequency range of the next stage of the 5 G network roll-out in the range 26–28 GHz. Mobile communications beyond the 5 G network plan to use frequencies higher than 30 GHz so research across the MMW band is relevant.

An investigation into the methods of the experimental studies showed that the majority of studies were lacking in a number of quality criteria including proper attention to dosimetry, incorporating positive controls, using blind evaluation or accurately measuring or controlling the temperature of the biological system being tested. Our meta-analysis showed that the bulk of the studies had a quality score lower than 2 out of a possible 5, with only one study achieving a maximum quality score of 5 [ 9 ]. The meta-analysis further showed that studies with a low quality score were more likely to show a greater effect. Future research should pay careful attention to the experimental design to reduce possible sources of artefact.

The experimental studies included in this review reported PDs below the ICNIRP exposure limits. Many of the authors suggested that the resulting biological effects may be related to non-thermal mechanisms. However, as is shown in our meta-analysis, data from these studies should be treated with caution because the estimated SAR values in many of the studies were much higher than the ICNIRP SAR limits [ 9 ]. SAR values much higher than the ICNIRP guidelines are certainly capable of producing significant temperature rise and are far beyond the levels expected for 5 G telecommunication devices [ 1 ]. Future research into the low-level effects of MMWs should pay particular attention to appropriate temperature control in order to avoid possible heating effects.

Although a systematic review of experimental studies was not conducted, this paper presents a critical appraisal of study design and quality of all available studies into the bioeffects of low level MMWs. The conclusions from the review of experimental studies are supported by a meta-analysis in our companion paper [ 9 ]. Given the low-quality methods of the majority of the experimental studies we infer that a systematic review of different bioeffects is not possible at present. Our review includes recommendations for future experimental research. A search of the available literature showed a further 44 non-English papers that were not included in our review. Although the non-English papers may have some important results it is noted that the majority are from research groups that have published English papers that are included in our review.

The epidemiological studies on MMW exposure from radar that has a similar frequency range to that of 5 G and exposure levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits in most situations, provided little evidence of an association with any adverse health effects. Only a small number of studies reported positive associations with various methodological issues such as risk of bias, confounding and multiple testing questioning the result. The three large cohort studies of military personnel exposed to radar in particular did not generally show an association with cancer or other diseases. A key concern across all the epidemiological studies was the quality of exposure assessment. Various challenges such as variability in complex occupational environments that also include other co-exposures, retrospective estimation of exposure and an appropriate exposure metric remain central in studies of this nature [ 153 ]. Exposure in most of the epidemiological studies was self-reported or based on job-title, which may not necessarily be an adequate proxy for exposure to RF fields above 6 GHz. Some studies improved on exposure assessment by using expert assessment and job-exposure matrices, however, the possibility of exposure misclassification is not eliminated. Another limitation in many of the studies was the poor assessment of possible confounding including other occupational exposures and lifestyle factors. It should also be noted that close proximity to certain very powerful radar units could have exceeded the ICNIRP occupational limits, therefore the reported effects especially related to reproductive outcomes could potentially be related to heating.

Given that wireless communications have only recently started to use RF frequencies above 6 GHz there are no epidemiological studies investigating 5 G directly as yet. Some previous epidemiological studies have reported a possible weak association between mobile phone use (from older networks using frequencies below 6 GHz) and brain cancer [ 11 ]. However, methodological limitations in these studies prevent conclusions of causality being drawn from the observations [ 152 ]. Recent investigations have not shown an increase in the incidence of brain cancer in the population that can be attributed to mobile phone use [ 154 , 155 ]. Future epidemiological research should continue to monitor long-term health effects in the population related to wireless telecommunications.

The review of experimental studies provided no confirmed evidence that low-level MMWs are associated with biological effects relevant to human health. Many of the studies reporting effects came from the same research groups and the results have not been independently reproduced. The majority of the studies employed low quality methods of exposure assessment and control so the possibility of experimental artefact cannot be excluded. Further, many of the effects reported may have been related to heating from high RF energy deposition so the assertion of a ‘low-level’ effect is questionable in many of the studies. Future studies into the low-level effects of MMWs should improve the experimental design with particular attention to dosimetry and temperature control. The results from epidemiological studies presented little evidence of an association between low-level MMWs and any adverse health effects. Future epidemiological research would benefit from specific investigation on the impact of 5 G and future telecommunication technologies.

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This work was supported by the Australian Government’s Electromagnetic Energy Program. This work was also partly supported by National Health and Medical Research Council grant no. 1042464. 

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Karipidis, K., Mate, R., Urban, D. et al. 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 31 , 585–605 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6

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• Network infrastructure

5G, the latest generation of cellular technology, delivers faster speeds, lower latency, higher reliability and greater capacity for multiple devices than its 4G predecessor. Carriers target the majority of their 5G marketing dollars to consumers, but enterprises will reap the biggest rewards. This enterprise 5G guide explains how the cellular technology works, its architecture options, emerging use cases, how it compares to 4G and Wi-Fi 6, and more.

• Alexander S. Gillis, Technical Writer and Editor
• Kate Gerwig, Editorial Director

What is 5G?

Fifth-generation wireless (5G) is the latest iteration of cellular technology. 5G was engineered to greatly increase the speed and bandwidth of wireless networks while also reducing latency when compared to previous wireless standards.

5G is ideal for telecommunications, internet of things ( IoT ) and for private networks using private 5G . Cellular companies began deploying 5G networks in 2019 as the successor to fourth-generation wireless ( 4G ).

With 5G, data transmitted over wireless broadband connections can travel at multigigabit speeds, with potential ideal peak download speeds as high as 20 gigabits per second (Gbps). These speeds exceed wireline network speeds and can offer latency of below 5 milliseconds (ms) or lower, which is useful for applications that require real-time feedback. 5G enables a sharp increase in the amount of data transmitted over wireless systems due to more available bandwidth and advanced antenna technology.

Overall, 5G is expected to generate a variety of new applications , uses and business cases as the technology is rolled out.

How does 5G work?

5G is enabled by a 5G New Radio ( 5G NR ) air interface design, which acts as a specification for 5G networks -- describing how 5G products transmit data with 5G NR network infrastructure. 5G uses orthogonal frequency-division multiple access , the same radio access technology as 4G LTE networks use. In this way, 4G LTE wireless technology provides the foundation for 5G. Moreover, 5G also uses newer techniques such as quadrature amplitude modulation or QAM , beamforming, and other new features that increase the efficiency of a network and lower latency.

This article is part of

Enterprise 5G: Guide to planning, architecture and benefits

• Which also includes:
• What is 6G? Overview of 6G networks & technology
• Top 5 use cases for 5G augmented and virtual reality
• What 5G skills are most in demand?

5G wireless networks are composed of cell sites divided into sectors that send data through radio waves. Unlike 4G, which requires large, high-power cell towers to radiate signals over longer distances, 5G wireless signals are transmitted through large numbers of small cell stations located in places like light poles or building roofs. The use of multiple small cells is necessary, as the millimeter wave ( mmWave ) spectrum -- the band of that 5G relies on to generate high speeds -- can only travel over short distances and is subject to interference from weather and physical obstacles.

MmWave frequencies can be easily blocked by objects such as trees, walls and buildings -- meaning that, much of the time, mmWave can only cover about a city block within direct line of sight of a cell site or node. Different approaches have been worked on to get around this issue. A brute-force approach involves using multiple nodes around each block of a populated area so that a 5G-enabled device can use an air interface -- switching from node to node while maintaining MM wave speeds.

Another, more feasible, way of offsetting the challenges relating to distance and interference with mmWave is using it in conjunction with a lower frequency wireless spectrum -- called Sub-6 5G.

The 5G spectrum is divided into mmWaves (high-band) and Sub-6 5G (low- and mid-bands). Although not as fast as mmWaves, Sub-6 5G is still typically faster than average 4G LTE speeds. Low-band frequencies are the slowest of 5G speeds, but are still faster than some 4G LTE speeds. Mid-band, by comparison, is faster than low-band, but is still eclipsed by mmWave.

Sub-6 5G reaches greater distances than mmWaves, but has lower speed and capacity compared to mmWave.

MmWave is still used in densely populated areas, while Sub-6 frequencies can be used in less dense areas. The lower-end frequencies can travel up to hundreds of square miles. This means that an implementation of all 5G frequency bands provides blanketed coverage while providing the fastest speeds in the most highly trafficked areas.

How fast is 5G?

Each band in the 5G spectrum operates at different speeds:

• Low bands provide speeds under 1 gigahertz (GHz), but can still provide speeds faster than some 4G LTE speeds.
• Mid-band provides speeds that range from 3.4GHz to 6GHz.
• The mmWave band, by comparison, is 30 GHz to 300 GHz.

Each band's speed varies depending on factors such as the carrier, distance, amount of traffic on the network, or obstacles (in the case of mmWaves).

Although 5G service is now widely available, it's not the initial replacement to 4G many thought it would be. While there are areas today with fast multi-gigabit download speeds, it's much more likely that users will encounter mid- or low-band 5G speeds. Even in a city block that provides mmWave 5G, its speed will diminish if the signal has to travel through a wall. Because of this, many users might notice only a minor speed improvement compared to 4G.

5G speeds are still considered fast in most cases, making consumer uses such as wirelessly streaming videos in 4K resolutions much more viable.

What are the benefits of 5G?

Even though the downsides of 5G are clear when considering how easily mmWave can be blocked, 5G still has plenty of worthy benefits, including the following:

• Use of higher frequencies.
• High bandwidth.
• Enhanced mobile broadband.
• A lower latency of 5 ms.
• Higher data rates, which will enable new technology options over 5G networks, such as 4K streaming or near-real-time streaming of virtual reality.
• The flexibility in coverage, having a mobile network made up of low-band, mid-band and mmWave frequencies.

Around the same time as the initial launch of 5G in 2019, the first 5G-compliant smartphones and associated devices started becoming commercially available.

At first, carrier 5G deployments were underwhelming, as some companies chose to build up their low-band infrastructure first. Although still 5G, it was not providing the blinding speed advertised by many carriers -- as that would come with mmWaves. Verizon was an early adopter of building their 5G mmWave architecture; however, this process is expensive and, at first, was only provided in a limited number of specific city areas.

Since 2019, many 5G carriers have had time to build up their 5G sub-6 and mmWave deployments. Many companies like Verizon or AT&T offer coverage maps on their websites, showing where they provide 5G mmWave, Sub-6 or 4G coverage. Each company has a different name for each band they offer, however. As an example, Verizon calls its 5G mmWave "5G Ultra Wideband," while AT&T calls its "5G+," and T-Mobile calls its "5G Ultra Capacity."

What types of 5G wireless services will be available?

Network operators are developing two types of 5G services:

• 5G cellular services provide user access to operators' 5G cellular networks. These services began to be rolled out in 2019 when the first 5G-enabled (or 5G-compliant) devices became commercially available. Cellular service delivery is also dependent upon the completion of mobile core standards by 3GPP.
• Private 5G delivers 5G cellular connectivity for private network use cases. An organization must own or rent 5G spectrum and infrastructure to enact a private 5G network. Private 5G works in the same way as a public 5G network, but the owners are able to provide restricted access to their network. Private 5G networks are deployable as either a service, wholly owned, hybrid or sliced private networks.
• 5G fixed wireless broadband services deliver internet access to homes and businesses without a wired connection to the premises. To do that, network operators deploy NRs in small cell sites near buildings to beam a signal to a receiver on a rooftop or a windowsill that is amplified within the premises. Fixed broadband services are expected to make it less expensive for operators to deliver broadband services to homes and businesses because this approach eliminates the need to roll out fiber optic lines to every residence. Instead, operators only need to install fiber optics to cell sites, and customers receive broadband services through wireless modems located in their residences or businesses.

5G vs. 4G: Key differences

Each generation of cellular technology differs in its data transmission speed and encoding methods, which require end users to upgrade their hardware. 4G can support up to 2 Gbps and is slowly continuing to improve in speed. 4G featured speeds up to 500 times faster than 3G. 5G can be up to 100 times faster than 4G.

One of the main differences between 4G and 5G is the level of latency, of which 5G has much less. 5G uses orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing ( OFDM ) encoding, similar to 4G LTE. 4G, however, uses 20 MHz channels bonded together at 160 MHz. 5G is up to between 100 and 800 MHz channels, which requires larger blocks of airwaves than 4G.

Samsung is currently researching 6G. Not too much is currently known about how fast 6G would be and how it would operate. However, 6G will probably operate in similar differences of magnitude as between 4G and 5G. Some think 6G might use mmWave on the radio spectrum and might be a decade away.

5G use cases

5G use cases can range from business and enterprise use to more casual consumer use. Some examples of how 5G can be used include the following:

• Streaming high-quality video.
• Communication among devices in an IoT environment.
• More accurate location tracking.
• Fixed wireless services.
• Low-latency communication.
• Better ability for real-time analytics.

In addition to improvements in speed, capacity and latency, 5G offers network management features -- among them network slicing , which enables mobile operators to create multiple virtual networks within a single physical 5G network. This capability will enable wireless network connections to support specific uses or business cases and could be sold on an as-a-service basis. A self-driving car , for example, could require a network slice that offers extremely fast, low-latency connections so a vehicle could navigate in real time. A home appliance, however, could be connected via a lower-power, slower connection because high performance is not crucial. IoT could use secure, data-only connections.

Business benefits of 5G

5G's impact on the economy

5G's value chain and its support of a broad range of industries have led to a notable impact on economies. A study from PwC predicted that, by 2030, the total impact on the US economy by 5G will be $1.3 trillion. And in 2019, the leading industries 5G has affected include healthcare at $530 billion, smart utilities at $330 billion, consumer and media applications at $254 billion, industrial manufacturing at $134 billion and financial-services applications at $85 billion.

In another report published by CTIA , in 2020, the wireless industry generated over $1.3 trillion and added almost 4.5 million jobs to the American economy.

Who is working on 5G?

Many of the big carriers are working on building up and expanding their 5G networks. This includes Verizon, AT&T and T-Mobile. Each carrier mentioned, for example, has embraced the idea of a multi-tier 5G strategy, which includes the use of low-band, mid-band and mmWave frequencies.

Likewise, 3GPP is working on more updates and improvements to their 5G specifications.

Why 5GE is not really 5G

Early on in its 5G development, AT&T released a 5GE network, where 4G LTE users received an update that "upgraded" them to 5GE. 5GE was just a rebranding of AT&T's Gb 4G LTE network, however.

AT&T argued that the offered speeds were close enough to 5G, but it still was not technically 5G. The G stands for generation, typically signaling a compatibility break with former hardware. Users wouldn't have been able to update their phones to support 5G; rather, they would have needed to get a new phone that supports 5G entirely. This was a marketing strategy that misled individuals who did not know the specifics behind the technology.

What 5G phones are available?

A phone or another piece of hardware can't just get a software update on a 4G phone to enable 5G. 5G requires specific hardware.

To be able to utilize 5G, a user must have a device that supports 5G, a carrier that supports 5G and be within an area that has a 5G node within range.

Most new phones released today are developed to support 5G. As an example, the iPhone 12 and up all support 5G, while the Google Pixel 5 and up support 5G.

History of cellular wireless technology

1G was launched by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. By 1984, Japan became the first country to have the first generational network nationwide. Motorola introduced the first commercially available cellphone in 1983, called the DynaTAC.

The second generational network (2G) was released initially in Finland in 1991. 2G introduced significant improvements to mobile talk, such as improving sound quality, reducing static, and introducing encrypted calls. Another major addition to 2G was the ability to access media on cell phones by enabling the transfer of data bits.

The third-generation wireless ( 3G ) was first introduced in 2001. 3G focused on standardizing network protocols from different vendors. The biggest improvement to 3G was its increased speed, which enabled users to browse the internet on their mobile devices. 3G had four times the data transferring capability. International roaming services were also introduced.

The fourth-generation wireless was introduced in 2009. 4G enabled users to stream high-quality video with faster mobile web access. In 2011, LTE networks began launching in Canada. 4G LTE can still commonly be found in areas where 5G isn't yet provided.

Work developing 5G began in 2015 by the 3GPP -- a collaborative group of telecommunications associations. 3GPP's initial goal was to develop globally applicable specifications for 3G mobile systems. The 3GPP meets four times a year to plan and develop new releases. Each release improves upon the last while providing new standardized functionalities.

In 2017, the fifth 5G and 5G NR specifications were released. One year later, in 2018, the 3GPP approved release 16, which included a few specifications, including network slicing.

5G saw its public release in 2019, with Verizon being among the first carriers to develop a 5G mobile network in both Chicago and Minneapolis. Other carriers like Sprint, AT&T and T-Mobile began launching their own 5G infrastructure and services around the same time. Some companies started focusing on higher-speed mmWave infrastructure, while others decided to invest in developing lower band frequencies first.

In 2020, 3GPP release 16 was published, which focused on applications of 5G, such as automotive and industrial IoT. Release 18 was launched in 2022 and covered system architecture and services, security, multimedia codecs, as well as management orchestration and charging features.

The history of wireless networks has seen numerous iterations, and as 5G continues to be adopted, we will continue to see new iterations, updates and improvements. Learn more about the 5G adoption and how different industries will benefit from it in this article.

Continue Reading About 5G

5g vs. 4g: learn the key differences between them.

• Understand the basics of 5G wireless networks
• The different types of 5G technology for enterprises
• What are the pros and cons of 5G?
• 5G devices evolve beyond smartphones to prop up IoT

Related Terms

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5G New Radio (NR)

Indoor 5G gets a boost as small cells come to rescue

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Related Essays on 5G Technology

In conclusion, the arrival of 5G technology heralds a new era of connectivity that will reshape the global economy. With its potential to revolutionize industries, enable innovative applications, and enhance communication, 5G is [...]

In an era dominated by wireless communication, Bluetooth technology has emerged as a pivotal force, seamlessly connecting a myriad of devices and revolutionizing the way we interact with the digital world. From its inception in [...]

The expansion of 5G wireless is 5th generation wireless technology. This will complete wireless communication with almost no limitations. It can be called REAL wireless world. It has incrediable transmission speed. A 5G network [...]

The world has seen a number of advancements in wireless technology field. Starting from the first generation of wireless technology which was all about analog cellular, where cell phones of heavy weights and antennas were seen. [...]

The use of self-balancing robots has become quite extensive in the modern world and they form the basis of numerous applications. The main reason why this robot has gained fame is that it is fundamentally based on the ideology [...]

Nick Bostrom in his book “Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies” asks what will happen once we manage to build computers that are smarter than us, including what we need to do, how it is going to work, and why it has to [...]

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