essay on soil fertility

Fertile soils contribute to food security, good yields for farmers and economic development for the countries

Fertile soils are able to produce healthy food with all the necessary nutrients for a healthy person

Soil fertility is the ability of a soil to sustain plant growth, by providing essential plant nutrients and favorable chemical, physical, and biological characteristics as a habitat for plant growth

Inappropriate soil fertility management can lead to adverse risks in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and contamination of soils and waterways

Soil fertility.

Soil fertility is the ability of a soil to sustain plant growth by providing essential plant nutrients and favorable chemical, physical, and biological characteristics as a habitat for plant growth. Plant nutrients include the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, sulfur, calcium and magnesium. Micronutrients are essentially boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc. Fertilizers are chemical or natural substance or material that is used to provide nutrients to plants, usually via application to the soil, but also to foliage or through water in rice systems, fertigation or hydroponics or aquaculture operations. Nutrient sources include chemical and mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers, such as livestock manures and composts, and sources of recycled nutrients.

The impacts of soil fertility are reflected in most of the Sustainable Development Goals, as they contain economic, social and environmental aspects . The main function provided by a fertile soil is the provision of food, which is very important considering FAO’s Zero hunger objective . A fertile soil also provides essential nutrients for plant growth, to produce healthy food with all the necessary nutrients needed for human health. Moreover, fertility has an impact on activities with an economic impact and is therefore related to economic growth and the fight against poverty . Finally, good management of soil fertility can help reduce soil, water and air pollution, regulate water resources availability, support a diverse and active biotic community, increase vegetation cover and allows for carbon neutral footprint.

Soil fertility is crucial for agricultural productivity and therefore for food security. It can be maintained or increased through several management practices. Farmers can improve soil fertility and soil health by optimizing soil nutrient management in terms of maximizing net returns, minimizing the soil nutrients depletion, and minimizing nutrient losses or negative impacts on the environment. Governments should promote sustainable agricultural practices, technologies and management in order to improve soil fertility and nutrient management as a whole, such as Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) and Sustainable Soil Management (SSM). The International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of Fertilizers promotes practices including nutrient recycling, and agronomic and land management to improve soil health; it recommends regulation related to the sale, distribution and labelling of fertilizer products, wherever appropriate. It also promotes capacity development and education programmes for all stakeholders involved in the fertilizer value chain, and encourages developed countries to assist others in developing infrastructures and capacity to manage fertilizers throughout their life cycle.

Latest stories

Soils4Nutrition project implementation

Nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a food-based approach to agricultural development that puts nutritionally rich foods, dietary diversity, and food fortification at the heart of overcoming malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies.

Innovation in understanding soils

Soil: it grows the food that nourishes us, provides us with space we live on and even helps protect and control our climate. But unfortunately, soils are under pressure.

Available tools

Technical guidelines on soils for nutrition

Sustainable soil management for nutrition-sensitive

These technical guidelines outline the role that soil health plays in the nutritional quality of food and provide soil management recommendations to increase the supply of micronutrients to the food chain.

Fertilizers' Code implementation

Fertilizers' use and management

The Code promotes nutrient recycling, agronomic and land management to improve soil health; recommends regulation related to the sale, distribution and labelling of fertilizers.

Global Soil Doctors programme

A Farmer-to-farmer training initiative

The programme provides champion farmers with trainings, educational material and soil testing kits to build capacity on soil science and promote sustainable soil management.

Farmers' Compost Handbook

A practical guide to composting

Composting reduces pollution, reuses organic waste, reduces the cost of fertilizers and agricultural production inputs and especially returns to soil the nutrients taken to produce food.

Programmes and projects

Capacity Development on Sustainable Soil Fertility Management

The Government of China supports sustainable soil fertility management

The objective is to strengthen national capacities on soil fertility management, including appropriate fertilization and laboratory analysis of soils and fertilizers, to improve food security through increased agricultural productivity.

Soil4Nutrition agriculture

The Government of Germany supports the “Soils for Nutrition” project

The scope of the project is the implementation of sustainable soil management practices to improve the nutritional quality of locally-produced food and address micronutrient deficiencies in plants and people.

Economic evaluation of soil and nutrient loss in Malawi

FAO/GSP-UNDP-UNEP Poverty-Environment initiative

The project analysed the economic impact of both soil and soil nutrient loss in Malawi with new data on erosion and nutrients loss collected through field surveys, merged with detailed climatic data and socio-economic information.

Discover the International Network on Fertilizer Analysis (INFA)!

The International Network on Fertilizer Analysis (INFA ) was established in December 2020 to build and strengthen the capacity of laboratories in fertilizer analysis laboratories and improve quality standards.  INFA operates under the  Global Soil Laboratory Network (GLOSOLAN) . It was set up in response to requests from GLOSOLAN members and partners to harmonize fertilizer analysis methods, and in relation to the implementation of the  International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of Fertilizers  [Read more ]

Global Symposium on Soil Fertility

International science-policy meeting to be held at FAO headquarters from 26-29 July.

Webinar on the Fertilizers' Code implementation

Tools and practices explained in a virtual meeting with the experts.

Technical workshops on nutrition-sensitive agriculture

Sustainable soil management meetings planned for May 2021

Science and Innovation Forum

World Food Forum 2022 | Innovations in soil and plant nutrient management | 20 October 2022, FAO headquarters

Communication material

Where food begins

Healthy soils not only are the foundation for food, fuel, fibre and medical products, but they are also playing a key role in the carbon cycle, storing and filtering water, and improving resilience to floods and droughts.

French | Spanish | Chinese | Russian | Arabic

Other languages:  Hungarian | German

Global Symposium on Soils for Nutrition

Science-policy meeting organized by FAO, Global Soil Partnership and the Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils. It will be held on 26-29 July 2022 in a virtual format.

Available in: EN | FR | ES | AR | RU | ZH

Photo contest #Soils4Nutrition

Photo contest organized in the framework of the Global Symposium on Soils for Nutrition.

Available in: English

Soils and nutrients

Soils form, store, transform, and recycle the nutrients we all need to survive.

Download the English card here

Healthy soils grows 95% of our food

The planet survives only thanks to a few cm of healthy soil that grows 95% of our food.

Soil fertility is...

Soil fertility is the ability to sustain plant growth by providing essential plant nutrients and favorable chemical, physical and biological characteristics.

Healthy soils and the nutrient cycle

Healthy soils are the basis to produce sufficient, safe and nutritious food. When the natural nutrient cycle is not optimized, fertilizers need to be added to soils.

Healthy soils and their supply of chemical elements

There are 92 naturally occurring chemical elements. Eighteen are essential to plants and 15 of them are supplied by soils.

The challenge of nutrient balance

A judicious use and management of fertilizers is essential to soil health and food security. 

Hidden hunger

Hidden hunger affects over 2 billion people worldwide.

The Fertilizer Code

The Fertilizer Code addresses the judicious use and management of fertilizers to prevent their underuse, misuse and overuse. 

Six actions to prevent and reverse nutrient imbalances

Six actions to prevent and reverse nutrient imbalances: 1) Use fertilizers judiciously; 2) Promote nutrient measuring and mapping; 3) Enhance technical support to farmers; 4) Promote crop diversification and pulses; 5) Promote long-term sustainable soil management practices; and 6) Use adequately micronutrients.

Bring back nutrients to soils

Soils are reservoir of valuable and renewable elements.

Six actions for farmers to fight nutrient imbalance

Six actions for farmers to fight nutrient imbalance: 1) Assess nutrients need in plants and soils; 2) Maintain a balanced soil pH and include crop rotation; 3) Promote nutrient recycling; 4) Avoid soil compaction and reduce tillage; 5) Protect soil biodiversity and enhance extension services; 6) Control fertilizers quality.

Soils and the SDGs

To what extent are soils related to the Sustainable Development Goals? Discover more.

The 10th anniversary of the Global Soil Partnership

Celebrate with us the important achievements of the past decade of action!

Soil,  an essential ingredient to healthy food and nutrition

Our soils are by nature linked to the micronutrient content of our food production. The poster shows how to reverse the increasing trend of nutrient depleted soil by adopting sustainable soil management practices.

English | French | Spanish | Arabic | Chinese | Russian

Other languages:  Turkish  | German | Georgian | Italian

Posters and postcards

High res  -  Low res

Hungarian:  high res  -  low res

Italian:  high res  -  low res

Portuguese:  high res  -  low res

Korean:  high res  -  low res

High res  -  Low res

Featured Soil Doctors publications

Featured Malawi publications

Selected publications

Protocol for the assessment of Sustainable Soil Management

Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of Fertilizers

Nutrition-sensitive agriculture

Soil and pulses: Symbiosis for life

Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management

Status of the World's Soil Resources

World Soil Charter

GSP website

Soils Portal

World Soil Day  

How can you support?

Become a GSP partner!

Spread the word

Subscribe to the newsletter!

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Soil Fertility: Factors Affecting Soil Fertility, and Biodiversity Responsible for Soil Fertility

Nutrient enriched soil is termed as “fertile”. A fertile soil maybe natural or inherent and it can be acquired by artificial fertilizers or manures. Fertility of soil can be affected by physical, chemical or biological factors ultimately having an impact on plant growth. Nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur as well as carbon etc. are not taken up by plants as it is but they have to be converted into their standard forms with help of microbes and nutrient cycling. Effective management of soil nutrients is essential as it forms the basis of human existence. Fertilization supplements the soil with additional nutrients and improves soil quality, yield and profits. Soil animals play a vital part in soil structure creation by producing channels and pores, concentrating tiny soil particles into aggregates, and fragmenting and mixing organic substances throughout the soil. A positive relation between biodiversity of plants and soil fertility is observed. This relation varies according to habitats, and biotic and abiotic factors. Soil fertility is crucial for agricultural productivity sustainability. Effective soil management is implemented to ensure high productivity for economic viability and maintenance of soil fertility.

Related Papers

Dr. Eetela Sathyanarayana

Tahir Manzoor

Guillaume Amadji

Many authors have discussed the concept of soil fertility. Despite some disagreement on the exact terminology, soil fertility retrospectively appeared to focus generally on the use of soil for agriculture. It was defined some 150 years ago, while agricultural sciences mostly focused on soil physical and chemical properties. More recently, with the increasing awareness of environmental issues related to agricultural land use and the development of new knowledge on ecosystems, more comprehensive approaches to soil quality were developed. Since the 1980s, growing knowledge on the roles of soil organic matter and living organisms has emphasised the importance of understanding and assessing the biological components of the soil and their functions alongside the physical and chemical components. Soil is described as a living system that fulfils several functions, such as primary production, environmental filter and climate regulation. Following the metaphor of a complex living 'organi...

Daniel Muleta

The narrative in the book is brief and to the point in a simple and easy to understand language, demanding least possible time of students. Also at the end of each chapter a few questions of varying kind are provided to recapitulate the main points. The present book discusses the fundamentals of soil fertility conditions and the reactions that various plant nutrients undergo in Indian environmental conditions and fulfill the plant need.

HAILU H A M E S O BORA

Historical background of soil fertility management 6 Table1. Changes in tropical soil fertility management paradigms over the past five decades 9 1.2 Principles of soil fertility management and plant nutrition 9 1.3 Soil fertility and soil productivity 10 1.4 Policies for Effective Plant Nutrition 11 CHAPTER 2: SOIL FERTILITY AND FOOD PRODUCTION 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.1. Soils as a Basis for Food Production 14 2.2 Role of Soil Fertility in Food Production 15 2.3 Soil Fertility Degradation and Food Production 15 How can we mitigate soil degradation? 17 2.4 Management Techniques for Sustainable Food Production 18 2.4.1 Managing soil nutrients 19 2.4.2 Managing soil physical conditions 20 2.4.3 Soil Moisture/water management 20 2.4.4 Plant nutrient balance 21 2.4.5 Amendments for soil fertility maintenance 22 COMMON TYPES OF SOIL AMENDMENTS 22

Rangana Dey

Tamiru Abebe

Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science

Nikola Patzel

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)

B. Rørslett

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Adudhi Pengle

Soil Fertility Management for Sustainable Development

yogeshvari Jhala

Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World

vassanda coumar

Soil Use and Management

Jean-François Ponge , Augusto Zanella

suraj sharma

VIOLETA SIMIONESCU

African Journal of Agricultural Research

Henrique Wagner

Sathya Velusamy

Ankur Vineet

Tewodros Mulualem

Kshudiram Chakraborty , Professor Biswaranjan Mistri

Roberto M Rodriguez

Editor CSRL

Maarten Stapper

Benigno Hernandez Rivera

International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology IJRASET

IJRASET Publication

Sudarshan Kharal

Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry

Usharani K V

Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira

Renato Passos

International Journal of Plant & Soil Science

Vishnu Gopan G M

International Journal of Plant & Soil Science

Akshay Shrivastav

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment

SASHIKANTA SAHOO

Binayak P Rajbhandari

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Manoj Sharma

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Press centre

Nuclear technology and applications.

• Climate change
• Environment
• Food and agriculture
• Nuclear science

Nuclear safety and security

• Human and organizational factors
• Governmental, legal and regulatory framework
• Nuclear installation safety
• Radiation protection
• Security of nuclear and other radioactive material
• Radioactive waste and spent fuel management
• Emergency preparedness and response

Safeguards and verification

• Basics of IAEA Safeguards
• Safeguards implementation
• Safeguards legal framework
• Assistance for States
• Member States Support Programmes

Technical Cooperation Programme

• How it works
• How to participate

Coordinated research activities

• Legislative assistance

Key programmes

• Atoms4NetZero
• International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO)
• Together for More Women in Nuclear
• NUTEC Plastics
• Peaceful Uses Initiative
• Rays of Hope
• The SMR Platform and Nuclear Harmonization and Standardization Initiative (NHSI)
• Zoonotic Disease Integrated Action (ZODIAC)

Review missions and advisory services

• Catalogue of review missions and advisory services
• Peer review and advisory services calendar

Laboratory services

• Analytical reference materials
• Dosimetry calibration
• Dosimetry auditing
• Inter-laboratory comparisons
• Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network (GNSSN)

Education and training

• Training courses
• Online learning

Scientific and technical publications

• Full catalogue
• Safety Standards
• Nuclear Security Series
• Nuclear Energy Series
• Human Health Series
• Conference Proceedings
• Newsletters
• Nuclear Fusion Journal

General interest material

• IAEA Bulletin
• Nuclear Explained
• Photos (Flickr)
• Photo essays
• Briefs and factsheets
• IAEA Virtual Tours

Official documents

• Information circulars

NUCLEUS information resources

• International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
• Power Reactor Information System (PRIS)
• Advanced Reactors Information System (ARIS)
• Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System (iNFCIS)
• Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Information System (SRIS)
• Nuclear Data Services (NDS)
• Research Reactor Database (RRDB)

Other resources

• Library – Nuclear Information Services
• Impact stories
• Press releases
• Media advisories
• Director General statements
• Photo library
• Press contacts
• Press enquiries
• General Conference
• Board of Governors
• Scientific and technical events
• Scientific Forum
• Medium-Term Strategy
• Partnerships
• Gender at the IAEA
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• Multilingual content
• List of Member States

Management team

• Director General
• Deputy Directors General

Organizational structure

• Offices Reporting to the Director General
• Technical Cooperation
• Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear Safety and Security
• Nuclear Sciences and Applications
• Working at the IAEA
• Types of Employment

Procurement

• Procurement overview

Search form

You are here.

• Food safety and quality
• Insect pest control
• Plant breeding
• Land and water management
• Climate-smart agriculture
• Nuclear and radiological emergencies
• Agricultural water management

Improving soil fertility

• Soil erosion control
• Crop nutrition

If you would like to learn more about the IAEA’s work, sign up for our weekly updates containing our most important news, multimedia and more.

• Arabic (monthly)
• Chinese (monthly)
• English (weekly)
• French (monthly)
• Russian (monthly)
• Spanish (monthly)

Soil fertility is the ability of soil to sustain plant growth and optimize crop yield. This can be enhanced through organic and inorganic fertilizers to the soil. Nuclear techniques provide data that enhances soil fertility and crop production while minimizing the environmental impact.

Advancing food security and environmental sustainability in farming systems requires an integrated soil fertility management approach that maximizes crop production while minimizing the mining of soil nutrient reserves and the degradation of the physical and chemical properties of soil that can lead to land degradation, including soil erosion. Such soil fertility management practices include the use of fertilizers, organic inputs, crop rotation with legumes and the use of improved germplasm, combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions.

The Joint FAO/IAEA Division assists Member States in developing and adopting nuclear-based technologies for improving soil fertility practices, thereby supporting the intensification of crop production and the preservation of natural resources.

Different approaches to efficiently manage soil fertility

An integrated soil fertility management aims at maximizing the efficiency of the agronomic use of nutrients and improving crop productivity. This can be achieved through the use of grain legumes, which enhance soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, and the application of chemical fertilizers.

Whether grown as pulses for grain, as green manure, as pastures or as the tree components of agro-forestry systems, a key value of leguminous crops lies in their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which helps reduce the use of commercial nitrogen fertilizer and enhances soil fertility. Nitrogen-fixing legumes are the basis for sustainable farming systems that incorporate integrated nutrient management. Use of nitrogen-15 lends understanding of the dynamics and interactions between various pools in agricultural systems, including nitrogen fixation by legumes and utilization of soil and fertilizer nitrogen by crops, both in sole and mixed cropping systems.

Soil fertility can be further improved by incorporating cover crops that add organic matter to the soil, which leads to improved soil structure and promotes a healthy, fertile soil; by using green manure or growing legumes to fix nitrogen from the air through the process of biological nitrogen fixation; by micro-dose fertilizer applications, to replenish losses through plant uptake and other processes; and by minimizing losses through leaching below the crop rooting zone by improved water and nutrient application.

The contribution of nuclear and isotopic techniques

The isotopes of nitrogen-15 and phosphorous-32 are used to trace the movements of labelled nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers in soils, crops and water, providing quantitative data on the efficiency of use, movement, residual effects and transformation of these fertilizers. Such information is valuable in the design of improved fertilizer application strategies. The nitrogen-15 isotopic technique is also used to quantify the amount of nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere through biological nitrogen fixation by leguminous crops.

The carbon-13 isotope signature helps quantify crop residue incorporation for soil stabilization and fertility enhancement. This technique can also assess the effects of conservation measures, such as crop residue incorporation on soil moisture and soil quality. This information allows the identification of the origin and relative contribution of different types of crops to soil organic matter.

Pakistan Shares IAEA Soil Salinization Solutions through South-South Cooperation

New CRP: Assessing the Fate and Environmental Impact of Plastics in Soil and Crop Ecosystems Using Isotopic Techniques (D15021)

Related resources

• Soil and Water Management & Crop Nutrition Laboratory
• Information and Knowledge Management
• FAO Land and Water Division
• Land and water management publications
• Publications

More on the IAEA

• Privacy Policy
• Logo Usage Guidelines

Scientific resources

• Information Circulars
• Standards and guides
• Safeguards and Additional Protocol

Stay in touch

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Acquisition
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Media
• Music and Religion
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business Strategy
• Business History
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Systems
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

2 Soil Fertility

Laurie E. Drinkwater is Professor in the School of Integrative Plant Science-Horticulture Section at Cornell University. Her research program aims to reverse soil degradation trends and restore soil health and ecological integrity in agroecosystems. She has authored numerous articles on agroecology, biogeochemistry, and nutrient management including Nutrients in Agriculture: Rethinking the Management Paradigm .

• Published: 21 March 2024
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This chapter considers how soil fertility management systems have evolved during the most recent era, beginning with the transition to the Green Revolution, industrial agriculture, and continuing to the present day when the sustainability of food production systems is viewed as a grand challenge facing humanity. The evolution of soil fertility research and practice is discussed in terms of implications for the challenges farmers face in managing soil resources sustainably while maintaining crop yields and conserving natural resources and biodiversity. The overarching frameworks guiding synthetic fertilizer management, soil health, and ecological nutrient management are discussed, as well as the barriers farmers face in adopting innovative management systems that would increase sustainability and human well-being.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

• Ways to Give
• Contact an Expert
• Explore WRI Perspectives

Filter Your Site Experience by Topic

Applying the filters below will filter all articles, data, insights and projects by the topic area you select.

• All Topics Remove filter
• Climate filter site by Climate
• Cities filter site by Cities
• Energy filter site by Energy
• Food filter site by Food
• Forests filter site by Forests
• Freshwater filter site by Freshwater
• Ocean filter site by Ocean
• Business filter site by Business
• Economics filter site by Economics
• Finance filter site by Finance
• Equity & Governance filter site by Equity & Governance

Search WRI.org

Not sure where to find something? Search all of the site's content.

The Causes and Effects of Soil Erosion, and How to Prevent It

• restoration
• agriculture
• food security

Soil erosion is agriculture’s enemy: a major environmental threat to sustainability and productivity with knock-on effects on the climate crisis and food security.  

This is particularly true for places with the highest risk of erosion , such as watersheds in Indonesia, India, the Philippines and more. In these areas, protecting against soil erosion through sustainable land management can solve a multitude of problems.

Here’s a deeper look at the causes and solutions to soil erosion:

Why Is Soil Erosion Such a Big Problem?

Soil is a natural resource that may look robust and endless, but is in fact the fragile product of thousands of years of formation. Topsoil, which lies closest to the surface of the land, contains essential nutrients for crops. It is this layer of soil that is endangered by wind and water erosion. Soil erosion decreases soil fertility, which can negatively affect crop yields. It also sends soil-laden water downstream, which can create heavy layers of sediment that prevent streams and rivers from flowing smoothly and can eventually lead to flooding. Once soil erosion occurs, it is more likely to happen again.

This is a global problem. Soil is eroding more quickly than it is being formed, causing land to become unsuitable for agriculture – a particularly serious concern in a world where the population is expected to top 9 billion by midcentury. Smarter land management is a necessity.

How Does Soil Erosion Affect Climate Change?

Erosion degrades land, which means it can support fewer plants that can take in climate-warming carbon dioxide. Soils themselves could potentially sequester enough greenhouse gases in a year to equal about 5% of all annual human-made GHG emissions. Better land management can help keep soils intact so they can grow more carbon-sucking vegetation. This is already happening in China, where the Grain-for-Green project in the Yellow River basin conserved soil and water and reduced carbon emissions.     

On the flip side, unchecked climate change can worsen erosion. A report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) found that when cultivated without conservation practices, soil is currently eroding up to 100 times quicker than it’s forming.  The risk of erosion will become even higher in the future due to emissions-driven temperature changes, with resulting decreases in agricultural production, land value and human health.

What Are the Impacts of Soil Erosion?

We’re already seeing the risks of soil erosion play out around the world. Jakarta’s deadly floods earlier this year are a prime example. Eroded sediments from further upstream clogged Jakarta’s rivers and canals, causing them to overflow. Similar erosion-related floods have occurred in many other countries, such as Colombia , India , the Philippines and Democratic Republic of the Congo .

Soil erosion is not only an environmental issue; it also causes huge losses to the economy. One  study  estimated global economic losses from soil erosion to be around $8 billion, due to reduced soil fertility, decreased crop yields and increased water usage. In Java, Indonesia, soil erosion is responsible for a 2% loss in total agricultural GDP , taking into account the losses farmers face directly and the losses others face downstream. Another study showed that soil erosion in Sleman, a district located in Java, costs 17% of an average farmer’s net income per hectare of agricultural land.

The U.S. agricultural sector loses about $44 billion per year from erosion. This value includes lost productivity, along with sedimentation and water pollution. Lost farm income is estimated at $100 million per year. Soil erosion also costs European countries $1.38 billion in annual agricultural productivity losses and $171 million in lost GDP (about 1% of total GDP). South Asia loses $10 billion annually thanks to soil erosion.

What Solutions Exist to Prevent Soil Erosion?

1. use soil-friendly agricultural practices.

Terraced farming needs to be implemented to make hillside agriculture manageable. Terraces prevent erosion and allow more water to flow to crops. In addition, hillside farm fields need full crop cover to help keep the soil in place. This can be accomplished by intercropping, which means growing two crops together in the same field, such as planting rows of maize or soybean between rows of oil palm trees. For smallholders, agroforestry systems where a diverse set of crops, including trees, are grown together can be effective. Access to manure improves the organic matter of the soil, which inhibits erosion. Finally, alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted crops improves soil structure and reduces erosion at the same time.

2. Offer Incentives for Land Management

Although the science of sustainable land management has been gaining support, the socio-economic context often makes implementation difficult. Sustainable land practices need to be financially viable for farmers. Anti-erosion measures have a median cost of $500 per hectare , a considerable investment for a farmer. Governments and banks must help farmers get access to credit and support in implementing erosion prevention. This is not only a good deal for the farmer, but for the whole community. The cost of erosion prevention is far lower than the price of land restoration and rehabilitation, which one source estimated to be around $1,500–$2,000 per hectare . Another source found it could reach $15,221 per hectare.

3. Prevention AND Rehabilitation

The key to managing and reducing soil erosion is to rehabilitate already-damaged land , stop further degradation and put erosion-preventative measures at the core of land management policy. In this way, we can help prevent hunger and mitigate the climate crisis.

To learn more about WRI's work restoring eroded soils, click here .

Relevant Work

Roots of prosperity: the economics and finance of restoring land, the road to restoration, how you can help.

WRI relies on the generosity of donors like you to turn research into action. You can support our work by making a gift today or exploring other ways to give.

Stay Informed

World Resources Institute 10 G Street NE Suite 800 Washington DC 20002 +1 (202) 729-7600

© 2024 World Resources Institute

Envision a world where everyone can enjoy clean air, walkable cities, vibrant landscapes, nutritious food and affordable energy.

National Forage & Grasslands Curriculum

• Description
• Core Group of Developers
• Regional Advisors Group
• Topic Experts Group of Developers
• Lesson Template
• Instructor Materials: Assessments: Prerequisite Test
• Production Process
• Learner Survey
• Prerequisite Test
• Testing Rationale
• Writing Evaluation
• Pretest - Introduction
• Instructional Objectives
• Define forages and differentiate between forage types.
• Explain how forages have been and are essential to civilization.
• Summarize the history of forages.
• Define grassland agriculture. Discuss a typical grassland ecosystem.
• Define sustainable agriculture and discuss how forages are a key component.
• List several grassland organizations and describe their role in promoting forages and grassland agriculture.
• Pretest - World Grasslands
• Define and describe the natural grasslands of the world.
• Locate and describe the tropical grasslands and their forages.
• Locate and describe the temperate grasslands and their forages.
• Important issues affecting grasslands and their forages.
• Pretest - U.S. Grasslands
• Describe the role of forages in the history of the US.
• Describe the current role of forages in US agriculture.
• Discuss regional forage production.
• Discuss forages from a livestock perspective.
• Discuss the environmental benefits of forages.
• Discuss the possible future role of forages in the US.
• Pretest - Grasses
• Grasses are very common but very important.
• Differentiate warm-season from cool-season grasses.
• Summarize the distinctive physical characteristics of grasses
• Describe the utilization of grass in forage-livestock systems.
• Describe how knowledge of grass regrowth is beneficial to forage managers.
• Provide specific information about the common grasses used as forage
• Pretest - Legumes
• Legumes are a valuable part of forage production.
• Differentiate warm-season from cool-season legumes.
• Summarize the distinctive physical characteristics of legumes.
• Define the utilization of legumes in forage-livestock systems.
• Provide specific information about the common legumes used as forage.
• Pretest - Plant Identification
• Explain the reasons why forage plant identification is important.
• Describe the major differences between the plant families used as forages.
• Provide the vocabulary needed to identify grasses.
• Provide the basic vocabulary for identifying legumes.
• Identify common species of forage.
• Provide practice in identifying common forages.
• Pretest - Forage Selection
• The selection of a forage plant is crucial.
• Determine limitations to forage selection.
• Forage selection requires an understanding of species and cultivars.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of selecting mixtures.
• A model for forage selection
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of pasture establishment
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of pasture renovation.
• Discuss the steps in seedbed preparation.
• Discuss the considerations of seed quality.
• Discuss the methods and timing of seeding.
• Discuss the purpose and wise utilization of companion crops.
• Define the term weed.
• Explain why producers and the public should be concerned about weeds.
• Describe several ways in which weeds cause forage crop and animal production losses.
• Describe methods in determining quality
• List several poisonous plants found on croplands, pasturelands, rangelands, and forests.
• Describe the five general categories of weed control methods.
• Describe the concept of Integrated Pest Management and how it applies to weed control.
• Distinguish between selective and non-selective herbicides and give an example of each.
• Describe how weeds are categorized by life cycle and how this is correlated with specific control methods.
• Describe conditions that tend to favor weed problems in pastures and describe how to alleviate these conditions.
• Describe several common weed control practices in alfalfa production.
• List printed and electronic sources of weed control information.
• List local, regional, and national sources of weed control information.
• Discuss the basics of grass growth.
• Describe the impact of defoliation on grass plants.
• Discuss how grasses regrow.
• Discuss how livestock interaction impacts grass growth.
• Discuss grass growth in mixed stands.
• Discuss the practical applications of regrowth mechanisms.

Discuss the importance of soil fertility and the appropriate use of fertilization.

• Define and discuss the nitrogen cycle.
• Discuss the major elements needed for good soil fertility and plant growth.
• Define and discuss micronutrients.
• Discuss the uses and methods of liming.
• Discuss fertilizer management for mixed stands.
• Define biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and explain its importance.
• Describe the benefits of BNF in economic and environmental terms.
• Estimate the amount of BNF that is contributed by various crops.
• List and discuss factors that affect the quantity of nitrogen fixed.
• Describe the processes of infection and nodulation in forage legumes.
• Describe the process of inoculation in the production of forage legumes.
• Discuss the role of grazing in a pasture-livestock system.
• List and discuss the types of grazing.
• Compare and contrast the different types of grazing.
• Discuss the livestock dynamics on pastures and grazing.
• Discuss the utilization of a yearly grazing calendar.
• Discuss the purpose for mechanically harvested forages.
• List the characteristics of good hay and the steps needed to make it.
• Determine the characteristics of good silage and the steps in producing it.
• Discuss the potential dangers in mechanically harvesting and storing forages.
• Compare and contrast the types of storage and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Describe the importance of irrigation in producing forages.
• Describe major types of irrigation systems in US forage production.
• List and discuss factors that affect irrigation efficiency.
• Describe basic principles of scheduling irrigation for efficient use of water resources.
• Describe potential problems that may arise from the use of irrigation in forages.
• Define forage quality and management decisions that increase forage quality.
• Describe important factors that determine hay and silage quality.
• Discuss components of forage
• Define and discuss antiquality factors affecting animal health
• Discuss the need for and progress towards standards in national forage testing
• Discuss the history of forage breeding in the United States
• Discuss the philosophy of why new plant cultivars are needed
• Discuss the objectives of forage plant breeding
• Discuss the process of creating a new cultivar
• Discuss the steps in maintaining and producing new cultivars
• Compare and contrast plant breeding in the US and Europe
• Define a livestock system and their importance
• Describe the basic principles of a successful forage-livestock system
• Discuss forage-livestock systems in a larger picture
• Discuss how economics are a part of a forage-livestock system
• Discuss the types of forage-livestock systems
• Discuss the importance of utilizing forages other than common grasses and legumes
• Discuss the species suitable to use as miscellaneous forages
• Compare and contrast the species suitable to use as miscellaneous forages
• Discuss the utilization of crop residues in a forage-livestock system
• Discuss the utilization of a yearly grazing calendar
• Discuss the balance needed between input and output
• Describe marginal analysis
• Discuss macroeconomic questions
• Discuss microeconomic questions
• Discuss enterprise budgets
• Discuss the available tools for better economic management
• Describe several important environmental issues that relate to forage production
• Define the terms renewable resource and nonrenewable and give examples of each resource type that are related to forage production
• Define the term sustainable agriculture and apply the concept to forage production
• Diagram and describe a sustainable forage production system
• Discuss factors that contribute to soil erosion and discuss ways that soil erosion control can be integrated into forage product
• Discuss advantages and disadvantages in using synthetic agrichemicals in forage production
• Explain the concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and how it can be used to enhance sustainable forage production
• Define the term biodiversity and explain how this concept could be applied to forage production
• Discuss the controversy over using agricultural land to produce crops for animal consumption
• Instructor Feedback
• Laboratory Strategies
• Lecture Strategies
• Mailing Groups
• Math Review
• Practice Exam
• Reading Sample
• Publications
• Future Students
• Current Students
• Alumni & Parents
• Faculty & Staff

You are here

Most of the time, the average person treats the soil "like dirt". A wise farmer/rancher will care for the soil because he knows that man is dependent on the top 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) of soil. In the plant-animal-soil continuum, soil is often neglected because it does not indicate stress in an obvious way. Animals and plants show physical symptoms but the soil must be looked at more carefully to monitor good health.

Soil that is rich in nutrients is fertile. The expectation of growing plants as food for livestock must include the reality that plants will take nutrients out of the soil. Replacing nutrients is the basic goal of fertilization. Improper fertilization in the past has caused controversy, but the basic premise of fertilization is to replenish the soil.

Soils feed the plants which in turn feed the animals that feed us. Including soil in this important chain will help guarantee its success. Soil provides the support or foundation for plants and most of the nutrients. Soil is accumulated decomposing plant and animal matter with aging parent material. As the soil components break down, elements are released and become available to plants as nutrients. However, naturally this process takes a long time and the soil will only be a result of the parent material, climate, those living organisms once living there, topography, and time. So what is made available to a plant at a certain time may not be exactly what a growing plant needs. Fertilization is supplementing the existing soil with additional, needed nutrients. Fertilizing wisely increases yield, quality (nitrogen content and digestibility), and profits.

There are three basic ways to replenish the nutrients removed from the soil. One way is to recycle nutrients, mainly by way of animal waste. This is a crucial method when discussing pastures. Another way to replenish soils is to obtain and apply fertilizer. And the third way is through microbial action such as nitrogen fixation. Forage-livestock producers should understand and utilize all three for maximum fertility with minimum cost and environmental damage.

Fertilization is an important issue because it is needed in order to produce enough food for the increasing population from the decreasing cultivated land, but too much or inappropriate use can be detrimental to the environment. Part of the debates about fertilizers discuss "man-made" or "chemical" fertilizers as compared to "organic farming". There are many misconceptions about all three terms. This module will look at the various aspects of fertilization so a broader understanding will lead to better fertilization and results.

Contact Info

Forage Information System Oregon State University Department of Crop and Soil Science 109 Crop Science Building Corallis, OR 97331-3002

SOIL FERTILITY

Soil scientists that focus on soil fertility are interested in managing nutrients to improve crop production. They focus on using commercial fertilizers, manures, waste products, and composts to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Sometime they also add chemicals that change the pH to a more optimum level for nutrient availability to plants. Soil fertility experts must also be careful to ensure that practices are environmentally sustainable. Inappropriate management of nutrients can lead to contamination of lakes, rivers, streams, and groundwater.  In addition, adding amendments to the soil is expensive and cuts into the profitability of farming operations, not to mention that toxic levels of nutrients can be as bad as or worse than too little nutrients for the plants.

Nutrient Deficiencies

There are 17 essential plant nutrients, three come from air and water (carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen) and 14 come from the soil.  The table below describes the essential and beneficial elements obtained from the soil.  Macronutrients are needed in high quantity, micronutrients are needed in small amounts, and beneficial elements are essential or beneficial to some plants, but not all.

Soil Test Interpretations

There are many factors to consider when producing a crop or growing a garden.  How much fertilizer to apply and when to apply it are some of the decisions that must be made.  These decisions depend on the crop to be grown, the soil type, and the environmental conditions under which it is grown.  Soil testing laboratories associated with universities have conducted years of field and greenhouse research with various crops and soils to determine how a particular crop responds to soil test levels of plant nutrients.  Most laboratories use a rating scale that includes “Low”, “Medium”, “High”, and “Very High” to describe the soil test level of a particular nutrient for a particular crop in a particular soil type.  When a nutrient level is low or very low level, a fertilizer containing that nutrient is usually recommended.  Once a soil test rating reaches “High” or “Very High”, then the grower can save money by not applying any more of that nutrient. By not applying when soil test levels are high and by creating rating scales that are specific to general soil types, the environment can be protected from excessive nutrients. 

Nutrient Management

•   Ask A Scientist
•   Soil Store

Know Soil, Know Life

For high school and introductory college students, gain a foundation about the world of soils with our book - Know Soil, Know Life .

Visit the Society Store to learn more and purchase your copy today

• Biology Article
• Soil Fertility Replenishment Nutrients

Soil Fertility: Replenishment Of Nutrients

What is soil fertility.

“Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to sustain plant growth.”

Fertile soil results in high yield and better quality of plants. Fertile soil is rich in fundamental elements and minerals, has good aeration, water holding capacity, and good texture.

Let us have a look at what is soil fertility and how can it be replenished.

Factors Affecting Soil Fertility

The following factors affect the soil fertility:

Mineral Composition

The mineral composition of the soil helps to predict the ability of the soil to retain plant nutrients. Application of proper fertilizers and manures helps in enhancing the quality of the soil.

Soil pH helps in maintaining the nutrient availability of the soil. A pH range between 5.5-7 is optimum for soil fertility.

Soil Texture

The minerals of different sizes are responsible for maintaining the structure of the soil. Clayey soil can retain more nutrients and hence acts as a nutrient reservoir.

Organic Matter

Organic matter is a source of nitrogen and phosphorus. These can be mineralized and made available to the plants.

Also Read:  Biofertilizers

Nutrient Replenishment

Nutrients can be replenished in the following ways:

Adding Manures and Fertilizers

Fertilizers such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are added to the soil to make it fertile. These are also added to the potted plants in gardens to enhance plant growth. NPK and urea are the most common fertilizers required by the soil. Urea adds nitrogen to the soil. Whereas, NPK adds nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus to the soil.

Leguminous Crops

Leguminous plants contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium in the root nodules. These bacteria trap atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plants in the form of nitrogen compounds. The remaining nitrogen compounds are mixed with the soil to increase its fertility.

Also Read:  Rhizobium

To know more about soil fertility, factors affecting soil fertility and replenishment of soil fertility, keep visiting BYJU’S website or download BYJU’S app for further reference.

Put your understanding of this concept to test by answering a few MCQs. Click ‘Start Quiz’ to begin!

Select the correct answer and click on the “Finish” button Check your score and answers at the end of the quiz

Visit BYJU’S for all Biology related queries and study materials

Your result is as below

Request OTP on Voice Call

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Your Mobile number and Email id will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Post My Comment

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

Register with byju's & watch live videos.

Talk to our experts

1800-120-456-456

Soil Fertility

An introduction to soil fertility.

Just like humans, crops also require nutrients. Fertile soil contains all of the major nutrients required for basic plant nutrition (For example, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), as well as other nutrients required in smaller amounts (For example, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, nickel).

This article gives insight into what is fertile soil and its importance, the types of fertile soil, the principles of soil fertility and what are the various majors that can be taken to increase soil fertility.

Soil fertility can be defined as the ability of the soil to provide an atmosphere that is in favour of plant growth . It refers to the soil's ability to support plant growth and maximise crop yield. This can be improved by applying organic and inorganic fertilisers to the soil. Nuclear techniques provide information that improves soil fertility and crop production while reducing environmental impact.

This includes providing the plant with the essential nutrients and a suitable chemical, a physical and biological environment that enhances and promotes the growth of a plant. Fertile soil will typically have some organic matter that improves soil structure, moisture retention, and nutrient retention, as well as a pH between 6 and 7. Unfortunately, many soils lack adequate levels of all essential plant nutrients or soil conditions are unfavourable for plant uptake of certain nutrients.

Soil fertility and plant nutrition focus on the management of essential elements that are necessary for plant growth. Soil fertility directly affects the quality as well as the quantity of the crop production affecting how it can be further used for human uses. A single element is also considered essential if it is required for plant metabolism and the completion of the plant’s life cycle.

There are 17 elements that meet these criteria and are divided into macro and micronutrients . This, along with the composition of the plant, forms the biology and fertility of soils.

Types of Soil Fertility

Inherent or Natural Fertility:

The soil that naturally contains some nutrients and is considered fertile is known as inherent fertility. Some of the nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are considered essential for the normal growth and yield of the crop. These are naturally present in naturally fertile soil. The inherent fertility has a limiting factor from which fertility is not decreased.

Acquired Fertility:

When the fertility of the soil is developed through external agents like manures and fertilisers, tillage, irrigation etc., it is known as acquired fertility. It has been found that the yield does not increase after a point by the application of an additional quantity of fertilisers. Thus, this becomes the limiting factor of acquired fertility.

Soil Fertility and Fertilisers

Fertilisers are mixtures of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds that promote plant growth. Fertilizers that provide all three elements are frequently referred to as NPK fertilisers, after the chemical symbols for these three elements. Inappropriate or excessive fertilisation can be harmful to the ecosystem , but it is necessary to produce adequate food for the growing population . Overuse or repeated use of fertilisers can result in an ultimate decrease in soil fertility along with acidification of the soil.

It will gradually decrease the amount of organic matter, humus and beneficial organisms in the soil which will lead to inhibiting plant development, altering soil pH, increasing pests and even releasing greenhouse gases. Fertilisers are not meant for continuous or constant use as they can result in the overall infertility of the soil in the long term. This kind of soil will not be safe to use in future for any kind of crop production.

Importance of Soil Fertility

Soil starts the chain of the food cycle wherein it feeds the plant which ultimately feeds us. They are the primary organisms of the food chain. With the improvement of soil, there will be a gradual increase in the quality of plant and crop production as well. Some of the essential aspects of soil fertility are described below:

Soil provides direct nutrition and a foundation for plants . It is considered the most important factor in determining plant growth.

Soil is a result of the accumulation of decomposing plant and animal matter with the ageing parent material. As this soil breaks down, these elements are released in the form of nutrients that are directly available to the growing plant.

How to Increase Soil Fertility?

There are a few ways in which one can increase soil fertility or replenish the nutrients removed from the soil. Some of these are discussed below:

Recycling Nutrients: This can be done by the use of plant and animal waste.

Use of fertilisers.

Through Microbial Action: This includes the use of nitrogen fixation which can be achieved through the use of grain legumes that initiates biological nitrogen fixation. This can also be done by other methods like fertilisers, green manures, etc.

Incorporating Cover Crops: Using cover crops can add organic matter to the soil improving soil fertility and making it healthy for plant production.

In this article, we have studied about natural and acquired fertility of the soil and how we can improve the soil by adding compost and rotating crops every year. A fertile soil's primary function is to provide food, which is critical in light of the FAO's Zero Hunger goal. A fertile soil also provides essential nutrients for plant growth, resulting in healthy food that contains all of the nutrients required for human health. Fertile soil is typically found in river valleys or areas where glaciers deposited minerals during the last Ice Age. Mountains are usually less fertile than valleys and plains.

FAQs on Soil Fertility

1. What is leaching and how does it affect soil fertility?

Leaching is a process due to which the soil loses its water-soluble nutrients and colloids from the top layer. This might happen due to rain or irrigation. Due to this process, these nutrients are carried downward (eluviated) and are generally redeposited (illuviated) in a lower layer of the soil resulting in an open top layer and a dense, compact lower layer.

One of the elements that are a vital nutrient for plant growth is boron. Leaching can affect water soluble boron and cause deficiencies in the crops. A deficiency of boron from the crops can result in diseases with visual symptoms of misshapen, thick, brittle, small leaves.

2. How important is the chapter Increasing soil fertility from CBSE’s point of view?

The chapter on increasing soil fertility is considered one of the most important chapters from an examination point of view. It has to be covered thoroughly while remembering the major points. The chapter covers topics that involve factors affecting soil fertility and how to improve it, the macro and micronutrients involved in plant growth and production. It also talks about topics like fertilisers and how it affects soil fertility. 

3. When should one fertilise their plants?

Fertiliser is most effective when applied to plants during their active growth cycle. For deciduous species, this is when the plant begins to leaf out, flower, or put on new growth after emerging from the dormant winter stage. The best time of year to fertilise most plants is in the spring. Vegetable gardeners can use a quick-release fertiliser once a month or a slow-release fertiliser once a season to fertilise their garden beds. Some gardeners prefer to feed their flowers and plants once every one to two weeks with a portion of liquid-soluble plant food.

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Author Biographies
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Nickel and soil fertility: review of benefits to environment and food security.

1. Introduction

2. the role of ni in soil fertility and the plant-rhizosphere environment, 3. transport and accumulation of ni in plants, 4. nickel and biotic stress in plants, 5. advancement in ni delivery to plants and future research, 6. discussion, 7. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

• Pain, D.J.; Mateo, R.; Green, R.E. Effects of lead from ammunition on birds and other wildlife: A review and update. Ambio 2019 , 48 , 935–953. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kabata-Pendias, A. Trace Elements in Soils and Plants ; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cotton, F.A.; Matusz, M.; Poli, R.; Feng, X. Dinuclear formamidinato complexes of nickel and palladium. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988 , 110 , 1144–1154. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Harasim, P. Nickel resources and sources. In Nickel in Soils and Plants ; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018; pp. 87–104. [ Google Scholar ]
• Alloway, B. Heavy Metals in Soils , 2nd ed.; Blackie Academic and Professional: London, UK, 1995. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gasparatos, D.; Barbayiannis, N. The Origin of Nickel in Soils. In Nickel in Soils and Plants ; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018; pp. 105–128. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kabata-Pendias, A.; Szteke, B. Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments ; Taylor & Francis: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
• Albanese, S.; Sadeghi, M.; Lima, A.; Cicchella, D.; Dinelli, E.; Valera, P.; Falconi, M.; Demetriades, A.; De Vivo, B.; Team, G.P. GEMAS: Cobalt, Cr, Cu and Ni distribution in agricultural and grazing land soil of Europe. J. Geochem. Explor. 2015 , 154 , 81–93. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Reimann, C.; de Caritat, P. Establishing geochemical background variation and threshold values for 59 elements in Australian surface soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2017 , 578 , 633–648. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yao, W.; Xie, X.; Zhao, P.; Bai, J. Global scale geochemical mapping program—Contributions from China. J. Geochem. Explor. 2014 , 139 , 9–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gough, L.P. Geochemical Landscapes of Alaska: New Map Presentations and Interpretations for 23 Elements in Surficial Materials ; US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ajala, L.; Onwukeme, V.; Mgbemena, M. Speciation of some trace metals in floodplain soil of Eke-Mgbom, Afikpo, Nigeria. Am. Chem. Sci. J. 2014 , 4 , 963–974. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Holmgren, G.; Meyer, M.; Chaney, R.; Daniels, R. Cadmium, Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Nickel in Agricultural Soils of the United States of America. J. Environ. Qual. 1993 , 22 , 335–348. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nachtergaele, F. Soil taxonomy—A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. Geoderma 2001 , 99 , 336–337. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hseu, Z.-Y.; Chen, Z.-S. Nickel in serpentine soils. In Nickel in Soils and Plants ; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018; pp. 181–198. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bear, F.E. Trace elements, progress report on research with particular reference to New Jersey soils. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1954 , 2 , 244–251. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rinklebe, J.; Shaheen, S.M. Redox chemistry of nickel in soils and sediments: A review. Chemosphere 2017 , 179 , 265–278. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Uchimiya, M.; Bannon, D.; Nakanishi, H.; McBride, M.B.; Williams, M.A.; Yoshihara, T. Chemical speciation, plant uptake, and toxicity of heavy metals in agricultural soils. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2020 , 68 , 12856–12869. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Iyaka, Y.A. Nickel in soils: A review of its distribution and impacts. Sci. Res. Essays 2011 , 6 , 6774–6777. [ Google Scholar ]
• Derome, J.; Lindross, A.-J. Copper and nickel mobility in podzolic forest soils subjected to heavy metal and sulphur deposition in western Finland. Chemosphere 1998 , 36 , 1131–1136. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Adamo, P.; Dudka, S.; Wilson, M.; McHardy, W. Chemical and mineralogical forms of Cu and Ni in contaminated soils from the Sudbury mining and smelting region, Canada. Environ. Pollut. 1996 , 91 , 11–19. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Parzentny, H.R.; Róg, L. Distribution and mode of occurrence of co, ni, cu, zn, as, ag, cd, sb, pb in the feed coal, fly ash, slag, in the topsoil and in the roots of trees and undergrowth downwind of three power stations in poland. Minerals 2021 , 11 , 133. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mirlean, N.; Roisenberg, A.; Chies, J.O. Metal contamination of vineyard soils in wet subtropics (southern Brazil). Environ. Pollut. 2007 , 149 , 10–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nguyen, T.H.; Pham, Q.V.; Nguyen, T.P.M.; Vu, V.T.; Do, T.H.; Hoang, M.T.; Thu Thuy Thi, N.; Minh, T.B. Distribution characteristics and ecological risks of heavy metals in bottom ash, fly ash, and particulate matter released from municipal solid waste incinerators in northern Vietnam. Environ. Geochem. Health 2023 , 45 , 2579–2590. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Yang, C.; Sun, G.; Zhang, C.; Chen, Y.; Yang, W.; Shang, L. A new geochemical method for determining the sources of atmospheric particles: A case study from Gannan, Northeast China. Atmosphere 2019 , 10 , 632. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heckman, J.; Angle, J.; Chaney, R. Soybean nodulation and nitrogen fixation on soil previously amended with sewage sludge. Biol. Fertil. Soils 1986 , 2 , 181–185. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dellantonio, A.; Fitz, W.J.; Repmann, F.; Wenzel, W.W. Disposal of coal combustion residues in terrestrial systems: Contamination and risk management. J. Environ. Qual. 2010 , 39 , 761–775. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Antonkiewicz, J.; Kowalewska, A.; Mikołajczak, S.; Kołodziej, B.; Bryk, M.; Spychaj-Fabisiak, E.; Koliopoulos, T.; Babula, J. Phytoextraction of heavy metals after application of bottom ash and municipal sewage sludge considering the risk of environmental pollution. J. Environ. Manag. 2022 , 306 , 114517. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Asgari, K.; Cornelis, W.M. Heavy metal accumulation in soils and grains, and health risks associated with use of treated municipal wastewater in subsurface drip irrigation. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015 , 187 , 410. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Regulation (EU) 2019/1009 of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down rules on the making available on the market of EU fertilising products and amending Regulations (EC) No. 1069/2009 and (EC) No. 1107/2009 and repealing Regulation (EC) No. 2003/2003. FAOLEX 2019 , LEX-FAOC187729 , 1–114.
• Molina, M.; Aburto, F.; Calderón, R.; Cazanga, M.; Escudey, M. Trace element composition of selected fertilizers used in Chile: Phosphorus fertilizers as a source of long-term soil contamination. Soil Sediment Contam. 2009 , 18 , 497–511. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, G.; Simonne, E.; Li, Y. Nickel Nutrition in Plants ; FAS Extension University of Florida: Gainesville, FL, USA, 2011; Volume 6. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sawyer, D.C.; Barak, P. Mehlich III predicts that soils in Wisconsin and Illinois may cause nickel deficiency in crops. Plant Soil 2023 , 497 , 523–534. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nyczepir, A.; Wood, B.; Reilly, C. Field Deficiency of Nickel in Trees: Symptoms and Causes. In Proceedings of the V International Symposium on Mineral Nutrition of Fruit Plants 721, Talca, Chile, 16–21 January 2005; pp. 83–98. [ Google Scholar ]
• Barker, A.V.; Pilbeam, D.J. Handbook of Plant Nutrition ; CRC press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
• Heckman, J.; Angle, J.; Chaney, R. Residual Effects of Sewage Sludge on Soybean: I. Accumulation of Heavy Metals. J. Environ. Qual. 1987 , 16 , 113–117. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Siqueira Freitas, D.; Wurr Rodak, B.; Rodrigues dos Reis, A.; de Barros Reis, F.; Soares de Carvalho, T.; Schulze, J.; Carbone Carneiro, M.A.; Guimaraes Guilherme, L.R. Hidden nickel deficiency? Nickel fertilization via soil improves nitrogen metabolism and grain yield in soybean genotypes. Front. Plant Sci. 2018 , 9 , 614. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Westfall, D.; Mortvedt, J.; Peterson, G.; Gangloff, W. Efficient and environmentally safe use of micronutrients in agriculture. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2005 , 36 , 169–182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schaumlöffel, D. Nickel species: Analysis and toxic effects. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2012 , 26 , 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Buxton, S.; Garman, E.; Heim, K.E.; Lyons-Darden, T.; Schlekat, C.E.; Taylor, M.D.; Oller, A.R. Concise Review of Nickel Human Health Toxicology and Ecotoxicology. Inorganics 2019 , 7 , 89. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Spears, J. Nickel as a “newer trace element” in the nutrition of domestic animals. J. Anim. Sci. 1984 , 59 , 823–835. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Spears, J.W. Boron, chromium, manganese, and nickel in agricultural animal production. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2019 , 188 , 35–44. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Jin, D.; Zhao, S.; Zheng, N.; Bu, D.; Beckers, Y.; Wang, J. Urea nitrogen induces changes in rumen microbial and host metabolic profiles in dairy cows. Livest. Sci. 2018 , 210 , 104–110. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Clough, T.J.; Cardenas, L.M.; Friedl, J.; Wolf, B. Nitrous oxide emissions from ruminant urine: Science and mitigation for intensively managed perennial pastures. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2020 , 47 , 21–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sharma, A.; Nagpal, A.K. Contamination of vegetables with heavy metals across the globe: Hampering food security goal. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020 , 57 , 391–403. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mania, M.; Rebeniak, M.; Postupolski, J. Food as a source of exposure to nickel. Rocz. Państwowego Zakładu Hig. 2019 , 70 , 393–399. [ Google Scholar ]
• Smart, G.; Sherlock, J. Nickel in foods and the diet. Food Addit. Contam. 1987 , 4 , 61–71. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Onianwa, P.; Lawal, J.; Ogunkeye, A.; Orejimi, B. Cadmium and nickel composition of Nigerian foods. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2000 , 13 , 961–969. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, W.; Zhang, Z.; Yang, G.; Wang, Q. Health risk assessment of Chinese consumers to nickel via dietary intake of foodstuffs. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2014 , 31 , 1861–1871. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chain, E.P.o.C.i.t.F.; Schrenk, D.; Bignami, M.; Bodin, L.; Chipman, J.K.; Del Mazo, J.; Grasl-Kraupp, B.; Hogstrand, C.; Hoogenboom, L.; Leblanc, J.C. Update of the risk assessment of nickel in food and drinking water. EFSA J. 2020 , 18 , e06268. [ Google Scholar ]
• Seregin, I.V.; Kozhevnikova, A.D. Physiological role of nickel and its toxic effects on higher plants. Russ. J. Plant Physiol. 2006 , 53 , 257–277. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Massoura, S.T.; Echevarria, G.; Becquer, T.; Ghanbaja, J.; Leclerc-Cessac, E.; Morel, J.-L. Control of nickel availability by nickel bearing minerals in natural and anthropogenic soils. Geoderma 2006 , 136 , 28–37. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rooney, C.P.; Zhao, F.-J.; McGrath, S.P. Phytotoxicity of nickel in a range of European soils: Influence of soil properties, Ni solubility and speciation. Environ. Pollut. 2007 , 145 , 596–605. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ge, Y.; Murray, P.; Hendershot, W.H. Trace metal speciation and bioavailability in urban soils. Environ. Pollut. 2000 , 107 , 137–144. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Echevarria, G.; Massoura, S.T.; Sterckeman, T.; Becquer, T.; Schwartz, C.; Morel, J.L. Assessment and control of the bioavailability of nickel in soils. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2006 , 25 , 643–651. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sajwani, K.S.; Ornes, W.H.; Youngblood, T.V.; Alva, A.K. Uptake of soil applied cadmium, nickel and selenium by bush beans. Water Air Soil Pollut. 1996 , 91 , 209–217. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Peralta-Videa, J.; Gardea-Torresdey, J.; Tiemann, K.; Gomez, E.; Arteaga, S.; Rascon, E.; Parsons, J. Uptake and effects of five heavy metals on seed germination and plant growth in alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol 2001 , 66 , 727–734. [ Google Scholar ]
• Krupa, Z.; Siedlecka, A.; Maksymiec, W.; Baszyński, T. In vivo response of photosynthetic apparatus of Phaseolus vulgaris L. to nickel toxicity. J. Plant Physiol. 1993 , 142 , 664–668. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Neumann, P.M.; Chamel, A. Comparative phloem mobility of nickel in nonsenescent plants. Plant Physiol. 1986 , 81 , 689–691. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Welch, R.M.; Shuman, L. Micronutrient nutrition of plants. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 1995 , 14 , 49–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fismes, J.; Echevarria, G.; Leclerc-Cessac, E.; Morel, J.L. Uptake and transport of radioactive nickel and cadmium into three vegetables after wet aerial contamination. J. Environ. Qual. 2005 , 34 , 1497–1507. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Page, V.; Weisskopf, L.; Feller, U. Heavy metals in white lupin: Uptake, root-to-shoot transfer and redistribution within the plant. New Phytol. 2006 , 171 , 329–341. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ahmad, M.S.A.; Ashraf, M. Essential Roles and Hazardous Effects of Nickel in Plants. In Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology ; Whitacre, D.M., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2011; pp. 125–167. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shannon, R.D. Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides. Found. Crystallogr. 1976 , 32 , 751–767. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kumar, O.; Singh, S.K.; Latare, A.M.; Yadav, S.N. Foliar fertilization of nickel affects growth, yield component and micronutrient status of barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) grown on low nickel soil. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 2018 , 64 , 1407–1418. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hosseini, H.; Khoshgoftarmanesh, A. The effect of foliar application of nickel in the mineral form and urea-Ni complex on fresh weight and nitrogen metabolism of lettuce. Sci. Hortic. 2013 , 164 , 178–182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• de Queiroz Barcelos, J.P.; de Souza Osorio, C.R.W.; Leal, A.J.F.; Alves, C.Z.; Santos, E.F.; Reis, H.P.G.; dos Reis, A.R. Effects of foliar nickel (Ni) application on mineral nutrition status, urease activity and physiological quality of soybean seeds. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 2017 , 11 , 184–192. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• The International Nickel Company. Nickel Compounds as Fungicides ; ICB-39; The International Nickel Company, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1964. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ewart, A.J. On Bitter Pit and the Sensitivity of Apples to Poison ; Ford & Son, Printers: Chicago, IL, USA, 1913. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brown, P.H.; Welch, R.M.; Cary, E.E. Nickel: A micronutrient essential for higher plants. Plant Physiol. 1987 , 85 , 801–803. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Macedo, F.G.; de Melo, W.J.; Cecílio Filho, A.B.; Santos, E.F.; Cruz, R.B.; Belloti, M. Nickel reduces blossom-end rot even under calcium deficiency conditions; evidence from physiological responses of the NI-CA interaction. J. Plant Nutr. 2023 , 46 , 2893–2904. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bock, C.H.; Pisani, C.; Wood, B.W. Nickel and Plant Disease. In Mineral Nutrition and Plant Disease ; Datnoff, L.E., Elmer, W.H., Rodrigues, F.A., Eds.; APS Press: St. Paul, MN, USA, 2023. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hausinger, R.P. Chapter Four—Five decades of metalloenzymology. In The Enzymes ; Kaguni, L.S., Tamanoi, F., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 2023; Volume 54, pp. 71–105. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mustafiz, A.; Ghosh, A.; Tripathi, A.K.; Kaur, C.; Ganguly, A.K.; Bhavesh, N.S.; Tripathi, J.K.; Pareek, A.; Sopory, S.K.; Singla-Pareek, S.L. A unique Ni 2+ -dependent and methylglyoxal-inducible rice glyoxalase I possesses a single active site and functions in abiotic stress response. Plant J. 2014 , 78 , 951–963. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Freeman, J.L.; Persans, M.W.; Nieman, K.; Albrecht, C.; Peer, W.; Pickering, I.J.; Salt, D.E. Increased glutathione biosynthesis plays a role in nickel tolerance in thlaspi nickel hyperaccumulators. Plant Cell 2004 , 16 , 2176–2191. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fabiano, C.C.; Tezotto, T.; Favarin, J.L.; Polacco, J.C.; Mazzafera, P. Essentiality of nickel in plants: A role in plant stresses. Front. Plant Sci. 2015 , 6 , 754. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Apel, K.; Hirt, H. Reactive oxygen species: Metabolism, oxidative stress, and signal transduction. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2004 , 55 , 373–399. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gajewska, E.; Skłodowska, M.; Słaba, M.; Mazur, J. Effect of nickel on antioxidative enzyme activities, proline and chlorophyll contents in wheat shoots. Biol. Plant. 2006 , 50 , 653–659. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yu, H.; Li, W.; Liu, X.; Song, Q.; Li, J.; Xu, J. Physiological and molecular bases of the nickel toxicity responses in tomato. Stress Biol. 2024 , 4 , 25. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Alfano, M.; Cavazza, C. Structure, function, and biosynthesis of nickel-dependent enzymes. Protein Sci. 2020 , 29 , 1071–1089. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Torres, E.; Kalcsits, L.; Nieto, L.G. Is calcium deficiency the real cause of bitter pit? A review. Front. Plant Sci. 2024 , 15 , 1383645. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wood, B.W.; Reilly, C.C.; Nyczepir, A.P. Mouse-ear of pecan: A nickel deficiency. HortScience 2004 , 39 , 1238–1242. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mehlich, A. Mehlich 3 soil test extractant: A modification of Mehlich 2 extractant. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 1984 , 15 , 1409–1416. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lindsay, W.L.; Norvell, W. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 1978 , 42 , 421–428. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Barman, M.; Datta, S.P.; Rattan, R.K.; Meena, M.C. Critical Limits of Deficiency of Nickel in Intensively Cultivated Alluvial Soils. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2020 , 20 , 284–292. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Okoli, N.; Uzoho, B.; Ahukaemere, C.; Egboka, N.; Irokwe, I. Chemical fractionation and mobility of nickel in soils in relation to parent materials. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 2021 , 67 , 1075–1092. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Barrow, N.; Hartemink, A.E. The effects of pH on nutrient availability depend on both soils and plants. Plant Soil 2023 , 487 , 21–37. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Macedo, F.G.; Santos, E.F.; Lavres, J. Agricultural crop influences availability of nickel in the rhizosphere; a study on base cation saturations, Ni dosages and crop succession. Rhizosphere 2020 , 13 , 100182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Deng, T.-H.-B.; van der Ent, A.; Tang, Y.-T.; Sterckeman, T.; Echevarria, G.; Morel, J.-L.; Qiu, R.-L. Nickel hyperaccumulation mechanisms: A review on the current state of knowledge. Plant Soil 2018 , 423 , 1–11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shalev, D.E. Studying peptide-metal ion complex structures by solution-state NMR. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022 , 23 , 15957. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cataldo, D.A.; Garland, T.R.; Wildung, R.E.; Drucker, H. Nickel in plants: II. Distribution and chemical form in soybean plants. Plant Physiol. 1978 , 62 , 566–570. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Montargès-Pelletier, E.; Chardot, V.; Echevarria, G.; Michot, L.J.; Bauer, A.; Morel, J.-L. Identification of nickel chelators in three hyperaccumulating plants: An X-ray spectroscopic study. Phytochemistry 2008 , 69 , 1695–1709. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Agrawal, B.; Czymmek, K.J.; Sparks, D.L.; Bais, H.P. Transient influx of nickel in root mitochondria modulates organic acid and reactive oxygen species production in nickel hyperaccumulator Alyssum murale. J. Biol. Chem. 2013 , 288 , 7351–7362. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wenzel, W.W.; Bunkowski, M.; Puschenreiter, M.; Horak, O. Rhizosphere characteristics of indigenously growing nickel hyperaccumulator and excluder plants on serpentine soil. Environ. Pollut. 2003 , 123 , 131–138. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pianelli, K.; Mari, S.; Marquès, L.; Lebrun, M.; Czernic, P. Nicotianamine over-accumulation confers resistance to nickel in Arabidopsis thaliana. Transgenic Res. 2005 , 14 , 739–748. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, S.; Takahashi, M.; Higuchi, K.; Tsunoda, K.; Nakanishi, H.; Yoshimura, E.; Mori, S.; Nishizawa, N.K. Increased nicotianamine biosynthesis confers enhanced tolerance of high levels of metals, in particular nickel, to plants. Plant Cell Physiol. 2005 , 46 , 1809–1818. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Vacchina, V.; Mari, S.; Czernic, P.; Marquès, L.; Pianelli, K.; Schaumlöffel, D.; Lebrun, M.; Łobiński, R. Speciation of nickel in a hyperaccumulating plant by high-performance liquid chromatography−inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and electrospray MS/MS assisted by cloning using yeast complementation. Anal. Chem. 2003 , 75 , 2740–2745. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Colpas, G.J.; Hausinger, R.P. In Vivo and in Vitro Kinetics of Metal Transfer by the Klebsiella aerogenes Urease Nickel Metallochaperone, UreE* 210. J. Biol. Chem. 2000 , 275 , 10731–10737. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hausinger, R.P. Metallocenter assembly in nickel-containing enzymes. JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 1997 , 2 , 279–286. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Küpper, H.; Lombi, E.; Zhao, F.J.; Wieshammer, G.; McGrath, S.P. Cellular compartmentation of nickel in the hyperaccumulators Alyssum lesbiacum, Alyssum bertolonii and Thlaspi goesingense. J. Exp. Bot. 2001 , 52 , 2291–2300. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cataldo, D.A.; Garland, T.R.; Wildung, R.E. Nickel in plants: I. Uptake kinetics using intact soybean seedlings. Plant Physiol. 1978 , 62 , 563–565. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hassan, M.U.; Chattha, M.U.; Khan, I.; Chattha, M.B.; Aamer, M.; Nawaz, M.; Ali, A.; Khan, M.A.U.; Khan, T.A. Nickel toxicity in plants: Reasons, toxic effects, tolerance mechanisms, and remediation possibilities—A review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019 , 26 , 12673–12688. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brooks, R.R.; Lee, J.; Reeves, R.D.; Jaffre, T. Detection of nickeliferous rocks by analysis of herbarium specimens of indicator plants. J. Geochem. Explor. 1977 , 7 , 49–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Boyd, R.S. Ecology of Metal Hyperaccumulation. New Phytol. 2004 , 162 , 563–567. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Boyd, R.S.; Davis, M.A.; Wall, M.A.; Balkwill, K. Nickel defends the South African hyperaccumulator Senecio coronatus (Asteraceae) against Helix aspersa (Mollusca: Pulmonidae). Chemoecology 2002 , 12 , 91–97. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• van der Pas, L.; Ingle, R.A. Towards an Understanding of the Molecular Basis of Nickel Hyperaccumulation in Plants. Plants 2019 , 8 , 11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nishida, S.; Kato, A.; Tsuzuki, C.; Yoshida, J.; Mizuno, T. Induction of Nickel Accumulation in Response to Zinc Deficiency in Arabidopsis thaliana. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015 , 16 , 9420–9430. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nishida, S.; Tsuzuki, C.; Kato, A.; Aisu, A.; Yoshida, J.; Mizuno, T. AtIRT1, the Primary Iron Uptake Transporter in the Root, Mediates Excess Nickel Accumulation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell Physiol. 2011 , 52 , 1433–1442. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ingle, R.A.; Mugford, S.T.; Rees, J.D.; Campbell, M.M.; Smith, J.A.C. Constitutively High Expression of the Histidine Biosynthetic Pathway Contributes to Nickel Tolerance in Hyperaccumulator Plants. Plant Cell 2005 , 17 , 2089–2106. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• White, J.F.; Kingsley, K.L.; Zhang, Q.; Verma, R.; Obi, N.; Dvinskikh, S.; Elmore, M.T.; Verma, S.K.; Gond, S.K.; Kowalski, K.P. Endophytic microbes and their potential applications in crop management. Pest Manag. Sci. 2019 , 75 , 2558–2565. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vivas, A.; Biró, B.; Németh, T.; Barea, J.M.; Azcón, R. Nickel-tolerant Brevibacillus brevis and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus can reduce metal acquisition and nickel toxicity effects in plant growing in nickel supplemented soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2006 , 38 , 2694–2704. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ważny, R.; Rozpądek, P.; Domka, A.; Jędrzejczyk, R.J.; Nosek, M.; Hubalewska-Mazgaj, M.; Lichtscheidl, I.; Kidd, P.; Turnau, K. The effect of endophytic fungi on growth and nickel accumulation in Noccaea hyperaccumulators. Sci. Total Environ. 2021 , 768 , 144666. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Weyens, N.; van der Lelie, D.; Taghavi, S.; Vangronsveld, J. Phytoremediation: Plant–endophyte partnerships take the challenge. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2009 , 20 , 248–254. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Weyens, N.; Croes, S.; Dupae, J.; Newman, L.; van der Lelie, D.; Carleer, R.; Vangronsveld, J. Endophytic bacteria improve phytoremediation of Ni and TCE co-contamination. Environ. Pollut. 2010 , 158 , 2422–2427. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, J.; Li, N.; Han, S.; Sun, Y.; Wang, L.; Qu, Z.; Dai, M.; Zhao, G. Characterization and bioremediation potential of nickel-resistant endophytic bacteria isolated from the wetland plant Tamarix chinensis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2020 , 367 , fnaa098. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lodewyckx, C.; Taghavi, S.; Mergeay, M.; Vangronsveld, J.; Clijsters, H.; Lelie, D.v.d. The effect of recombinant heavy metal-resistant endophytic bacteria on heavy metal uptake by their host plant. Int. J. Phytoremediat. 2001 , 3 , 173–187. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Madhaiyan, M.; Poonguzhali, S.; Sa, T. Metal tolerating methylotrophic bacteria reduces nickel and cadmium toxicity and promotes plant growth of tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum L.). Chemosphere 2007 , 69 , 220–228. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Visioli, G.; Vamerali, T.; Mattarozzi, M.; Dramis, L.; Sanangelantoni, A.M. Combined endophytic inoculants enhance nickel phytoextraction from serpentine soil in the hyperaccumulator Noccaea caerulescens. Front. Plant Sci. 2015 , 6 , 638. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Weyens, N.; Truyens, S.; Saenen, E.; Boulet, J.; Dupae, J.; Taghavi, S.; van der Lelie, D.; Carleer, R.; Vangronsveld, J. Endophytes and Their Potential to Deal with Co-Contamination of Organic Contaminants (Toluene) and Toxic Metals (Nickel) During Phytoremediation. Int. J. Phytoremediat. 2011 , 13 , 244–255. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• White, J.F.; Kingsley, K.L.; Verma, S.K.; Kowalski, K.P. Rhizophagy cycle: An oxidative process in plants for nutrient extraction from symbiotic microbes. Microorganisms 2018 , 6 , 95. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Goldstein, W.; White, J. Seed endophytes, rhizophagy, nutrient density, nitrogen efficiency and fixation in corn. In Proceedings of the 2022 Organic Seed Alliance Growers Conference, Virtual, 4–11 February 2022. [ Google Scholar ]
• White, J.F., Jr.; Kingsley, K.L.; Verma, S.K.; Kowalski, K. Rhizophagy cycle: A nutritional symbiosis involving bacteria that alternate between root—endophytic and free—living soil phases. In Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Fungal Endophytes of Grasses, Salamanca, Spain, 18–21 June 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ameer, M.A.A.; Hussein, H.N. Induction of Rhizophagy by yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in roots of lettuce Lactuca sativa. In Proceedings of the Journal of Physics: Conference Series ; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2020; p. 012116. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wood, B.W.; Reilly, C.C.; Bock, C.H.; Hotchkiss, M.W. Suppression of pecan scab by nickel. HortScience 2012 , 47 , 503–508. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Keil, H.L.F.H.P. Rust Eradication. U.S. Patent US-2971880-A, 14 February 1961. [ Google Scholar ]
• Macomber, L.; Hausinger, R.P. Mechanisms of nickel toxicity in microorganisms. Metallomics 2011 , 3 , 1153–1162. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gerwien, F.; Skrahina, V.; Kasper, L.; Hube, B.; Brunke, S. Metals in fungal virulence. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2018 , 42 , fux050. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dalton, D.A. Essentiality of nickel for plants. In Nickel in Soils and Plants ; CRC Press: London, UK, 2018; pp. 1–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Carlini, C.R.; Ligabue-Braun, R. Ureases as multifunctional toxic proteins: A review. Toxicon 2016 , 110 , 90–109. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Becker-Ritt, A.B.; Martinelli, A.H.S.; Mitidieri, S.; Feder, V.; Wassermann, G.E.; Santi, L.; Vainstein, M.H.; Oliveira, J.T.A.; Fiuza, L.M.; Pasquali, G.; et al. Antifungal activity of plant and bacterial ureases. Toxicon 2007 , 50 , 971–983. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mishra, D.; Kar, M. Nickel in plant growth and metabolism. Bot. Rev. 1974 , 40 , 395–452. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, Q.Y.; Brocato, J.; Laulicht, F.; Costa, M. Mechanisms of Nickel Carcinogenesis. In Essential and Non-Essential Metals: Carcinogenesis, Prevention and Cancer Therapeutics ; Mudipalli, A., Zelikoff, J.T., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 181–197. [ Google Scholar ]
• Das, K.K.; Das, S.N.; Dhundasi, S.A. Nickel, its adverse health effects & oxidative stress. Indian J. Med. Res. 2008 , 128 , 412–425. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Genchi, G.; Carocci, A.; Lauria, G.; Sinicropi, M.S.; Catalano, A. Nickel: Human Health and Environmental Toxicology. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 679. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kazantzis, K.; Thomidis, T. Effect of cultivar resistance and pre-harvest nickel applications on fruit rots, shot-hole, Alternaria leaf spot and fruit cracking. Eur. J. Hortic. Sci. 2023 , 88 , 12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Reilly, C.; Crawford, M.; Buck, J. Nickel suppresses daylily rust, Puccinia hemerocallidis on susceptible daylilies, Hemerocallis ssp. in greenhouse and field trials. Phytopathology 2005 , 95 , 588. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ahmed, A.I.; Yadav, D.R.; Lee, Y.S. Applications of nickel nanoparticles for control of Fusarium wilt on lettuce and tomato. Int. J. Innov. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol 2016 , 5 , 7378–7385. [ Google Scholar ]
• Einhardt, A.M.; Ferreira, S.; Hawerroth, C.; Valadares, S.V.; Rodrigues, F.Á. Nickel potentiates soybean resistance against infection by Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Plant Pathol. 2020 , 69 , 849–859. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lamichhane, J.R.; Osdaghi, E.; Behlau, F.; Köhl, J.; Jones, J.B.; Aubertot, J.-N. Thirteen decades of antimicrobial copper compounds applied in agriculture. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2018 , 38 , 28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• La Torre, A.; Iovino, V.; Caradonia, F. Copper in plant protection: Current situation and prospects. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2018 , 57 , 201–236. [ Google Scholar ]
• Solanki, P.; Bhargava, A.; Chhipa, H.; Jain, N.; Panwar, J. Nano-fertilizers and their smart delivery system. In Nanotechnologies in Food and Agriculture ; Mahendra, R., Caue, R., Luiz, M., Nelson, D., Eds.; Springer International Publishing Switzerland: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. 81–101. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rabinovich, A.; Rouff, A.A. Effect of phenolic organics on the precipitation of struvite from simulated dairy wastewater. ACS EST Water 2021 , 1 , 910–918. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rouff, A.A.; Juarez, K.M. Zinc interaction with struvite during and after mineral formation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014 , 48 , 6342–6349. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rabinovich, A.; Rouff, A.A. Changes to struvite growth and morphology as impacted by low molecular weight organics. ACS EST Water 2023 , 3 , 2277–2285. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Taddeo, R.; Honkanen, M.; Kolppo, K.; Lepistö, R. Nutrient management via struvite precipitation and recovery from various agroindustrial wastewaters: Process feasibility and struvite quality. J. Environ. Manag. 2018 , 212 , 433–439. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Goswami, O.; Rouff, A.A. Interaction of divalent metals with struvite: Sorption, reversibility, and implications for mineral recovery from wastes. Environ. Technol. 2023 , 44 , 2315–2326. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lu, X.; Xu, W.; Zeng, Q.; Liu, W.; Wang, F. Quantitative, morphological, and structural analysis of Ni incorporated with struvite during precipitation. Sci. Total Environ. 2022 , 817 , 152976. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rabinovich, A.; Rouff, A.A.; Lew, B.; Ramlogan, M.V. Aerated fluidized bed treatment for phosphate recovery from dairy and swine wastewater. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2018 , 6 , 652–659. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nepfumbada, C.; Tavengwa, N.T.; Masindi, V.; Foteinis, S.; Chatzisymeon, E. Recovery of phosphate from municipal wastewater as calcium phosphate and its subsequent application for the treatment of acid mine drainage. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2023 , 190 , 106779. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kopittke, P.M.; Lombi, E.; Wang, P.; Schjoerring, J.K.; Husted, S. Nanomaterials as fertilizers for improving plant mineral nutrition and environmental outcomes. Environ. Sci. Nano 2019 , 6 , 3513–3524. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Maity, D.; Gupta, U.; Saha, S. Biosynthesized metal oxide nanoparticles for sustainable agriculture: Next-generation nanotechnology for crop production, protection and management. Nanoscale 2022 , 14 , 13950–13989. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Shinde, N.A.; Kawar, P.G.; Dalvi, S.G. Chitosan-based nanoconjugates: A promising solution for enhancing crops drought-stress resilience and sustainable yield in the face of climate change. Plant Nano Biol. 2024 , 7 , 100059. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ramírez-Rodríguez, G.B.; Dal Sasso, G.; Carmona, F.J.; Miguel-Rojas, C.; Pérez-de-Luque, A.; Masciocchi, N.; Guagliardi, A.; Delgado-López, J.M. Engineering biomimetic calcium phosphate nanoparticles: A green synthesis of slow-release multinutrient (NPK) nanofertilizers. ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 2020 , 3 , 1344–1353. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Dimkpa, C.O.; Singh, U.; Adisa, I.O.; Bindraban, P.S.; Elmer, W.H.; Gardea-Torresdey, J.L.; White, J.C. Effects of manganese nanoparticle exposure on nutrient acquisition in wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.). Agronomy 2018 , 8 , 158. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Song, U.; Kim, J. Zinc oxide nanoparticles: A potential micronutrient fertilizer for horticultural crops with little toxicity. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 2020 , 61 , 625–631. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sharma, P.; Sharma, A.; Sharma, M.; Bhalla, N.; Estrela, P.; Jain, A.; Thakur, P.; Thakur, A. Nanomaterial fungicides: In vitro and in vivo antimycotic activity of cobalt and nickel nanoferrites on phytopathogenic fungi. Glob. Chall. 2017 , 1 , 1700041. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Phogat, N.; Ali Khan, S.; Shankar, S.; A Ansary, A.; Uddin, I. Fate of inorganic nanoparticles in agriculture. Adv. Mater. Lett. 2016 , 7 , 3–12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Banerjee, A.; Sarkar, A.; Acharya, K.; Chakraborty, N. Nanotechnology: An emerging hope in crop improvement. Lett. Appl. NanoBioScience 2021 , 10 , 2784–2803. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang, P.; Lombi, E.; Zhao, F.-J.; Kopittke, P.M. Nanotechnology: A New Opportunity in Plant Sciences. Trends in Plant Science 2016 , 21 , 699–712. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Jośko, I.; Oleszczuk, P.; Futa, B. The effect of inorganic nanoparticles (ZnO, Cr2O3, CuO and Ni) and their bulk counterparts on enzyme activities in different soils. Geoderma 2014 , 232 , 528–537. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nowack, B.; Bucheli, T.D. Occurrence, behavior and effects of nanoparticles in the environment. Environ. Pollut. 2007 , 150 , 5–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, P.; Jiang, Y.; Adeel, M.; Shakoor, N.; Zhao, W.; Liu, Y.; Li, Y.; Li, M.; Azeem, I.; Rui, Y.; et al. Nickel Oxide Nanoparticles Improve Soybean Yield and Enhance Nitrogen Assimilation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023 , 57 , 7547–7558. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chouhan, D.; Dutta, A.; Kumar, A.; Mandal, P.; Choudhuri, C. Application of nickel chitosan nanoconjugate as an antifungal agent for combating Fusarium rot of wheat. Sci. Rep. 2022 , 12 , 14518. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Parthasarathy, R.; Jayabaskaran, C.; Manikandan, A.; Anusuya, S. Synthesis of Nickel-Chitosan Nanoparticles for Controlling Blast Diseases in Asian Rice. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2023 , 195 , 2134–2148. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Yang, W.; Wang, L.; Mettenbrink, E.M.; DeAngelis, P.L.; Wilhelm, S. Nanoparticle Toxicology. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2021 , 61 , 269–289. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Klaine, S.J.; Koelmans, A.A.; Horne, N.; Carley, S.; Handy, R.D.; Kapustka, L.; Nowack, B.; von der Kammer, F. Paradigms to assess the environmental impact of manufactured nanomaterials. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2012 , 31 , 3–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Auffan, M.; Santaella, C.; Thiéry, A.; Paillès, C.; Rose, J.; Achouak, W.; Thill, A.; Masion, A.; Wiesner, M.; Bottero, J.-Y. Ecotoxicity of Inorganic Nanoparticles: From Unicellular Organisms to Invertebrates. In Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology ; Bhushan, B., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2012; pp. 623–636. [ Google Scholar ]
• Iftikhar, M.; Noureen, A.; Jabeen, F.; Uzair, M.; Rehman, N.; Sher, E.K.; Katubi, K.M.; Américo-Pinheiro, J.H.P.; Sher, F. Bioinspired engineered nickel nanoparticles with multifunctional attributes for reproductive toxicity. Chemosphere 2023 , 311 , 136927. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shah, G.A.; Ahmed, J.; Iqbal, Z.; Hassan, F.-u.; Rashid, M.I. Toxicity of NiO nanoparticles to soil nutrient availability and herbage N uptake from poultry manure. Sci. Rep. 2021 , 11 , 11540. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hasegawa, T.; Sakurai, G.; Fujimori, S.; Takahashi, K.; Hijioka, Y.; Masui, T. Extreme climate events increase risk of global food insecurity and adaptation needs. Nat. Food 2021 , 2 , 587–595. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• McNear, D.H., Jr.; Chaney, R.L.; Sparks, D.L. The hyperaccumulator Alyssum murale uses complexation with nitrogen and oxygen donor ligands for Ni transport and storage. Phytochemistry 2010 , 71 , 188–200. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Morris, J.W.; Scheckel, K.G.; McNear, D.H. Biogeochemistry of nickel in soils, plants, and the rhizosphere. In Nickel in Soils and Plants ; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018; pp. 51–86. [ Google Scholar ]
• de Oliveira, J.B.; Lavres, J.; Kopittke, P.M.; Chaney, R.L.; Harris, H.H.; Erskine, P.D.; Howard, D.L.; dos Reis, A.R.; van der Ent, A. Unravelling the fate of foliar-applied nickel in soybean: A comprehensive investigation. Plant Soil 2024 , 1–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Caggiano, R.; Sabia, S.; Speranza, A. Trace elements and human health risks assessment of finer aerosol atmospheric particles (PM 1). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019 , 26 , 36423–36433. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Prueitt, R.L.; Li, W.; Chang, Y.-C.; Boffetta, P.; Goodman, J.E. Systematic review of the potential respiratory carcinogenicity of metallic nickel in humans. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2020 , 50 , 605–639. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bar-Tal, A.; Fine, P.; Yermiyahu, U.; Ben-Gal, A.; Hass, A. Practices that simultaneously optimize water and nutrient use efficiency: Israeli experiences in fertigation and irrigation with treated wastewater. In Managing Water and Fertilizer for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification ; IFA, IWMI, IPNI and IPI: Paris, France, 2015; pp. 209–241. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pinto, I.S.; Neto, I.F.; Soares, H.M. Biodegradable chelating agents for industrial, domestic, and agricultural applications—A review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2014 , 21 , 11893–11906. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Brusko, V.; Garifullin, B.; Geniyatullina, G.; Kuryntseva, P.; Galieva, G.; Galitskaya, P.; Selivanovskaya, S.; Dimiev, A.M. Novel Biodegradable Chelating Agents for Micronutrient Fertilization. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2023 , 71 , 14979–14988. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Apodaca, L. Nitrogen Statistics and Information|U.S. Geological Survey. Available online: https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/nitrogen-statistics-and-information (accessed on 31 July 2024).
• Hu, Y.; Schmidhalter, U. Annual consumption and types of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers: Ammonia emission indicators for mitigation strategies in the European Union. Environ. Sustain. Indic. 2024 , 22 , 100365. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, Y.; Zhang, L.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, J.; Liu, M.; Zhou, M.; Luo, B. High-resolution ammonia emissions from nitrogen fertilizer application in China during 2005–2020. Atmosphere 2022 , 13 , 1297. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Motasim, A.M.; Samsuri, A.W.; Nabayi, A.; Akter, A.; Haque, M.A.; Abdul Sukor, A.S.; Adibah, A.M. Urea application in soil: Processes, losses, and alternatives—A review. Discov. Agric. 2024 , 2 , 42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Good, A.G.; Beatty, P.H. Fertilizing nature: A tragedy of excess in the commons. PLoS Biol. 2011 , 9 , e1001124. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hirel, B.; Tétu, T.; Lea, P.J.; Dubois, F. Improving nitrogen use efficiency in crops for sustainable agriculture. Sustainability 2011 , 3 , 1452–1485. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Reiter, M.; Samtani, J.; Torres Quezada, E.; Singh, V.; Doughty, H.; Kuhar, T.P.; Sutton, K.; Wilson, J.; Langston, D.; Rideout, S. 2022–2023 Mid-Atlantic Commercial Vegetable Production Recommendations ; Virginia Cooperative Extension: Fairfax, VA, USA, 2022. [ Google Scholar ]
• Topcu, Y.; Nambeesan, S.U.; van der Knaap, E. Blossom-end rot: A century-old problem in tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) and other vegetables. Mol. Hortic. 2022 , 2 , 1. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Rabinovich, A.; Di, R.; Lindert, S.; Heckman, J. Nickel and Soil Fertility: Review of Benefits to Environment and Food Security. Environments 2024 , 11 , 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080177

Rabinovich A, Di R, Lindert S, Heckman J. Nickel and Soil Fertility: Review of Benefits to Environment and Food Security. Environments . 2024; 11(8):177. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080177

Rabinovich, Alon, Rong Di, Sean Lindert, and Joseph Heckman. 2024. "Nickel and Soil Fertility: Review of Benefits to Environment and Food Security" Environments 11, no. 8: 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080177

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Environmental Drivers of Soil Organic Carbon in the Australian Rangelands

24 Pages Posted: 22 Aug 2024

Mingxi Zhang

Curtin University

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is vital for maintaining healthy ecosystems and providing various benefits beyond climate change mitigation. These benefits include supporting biodiversity and improving nutrient cycling, fertility and soil structure. This study aims to investigate the environmental drivers of SOC content across the vast Australian rangelands at different spatial scales. We describe the state of SOC as a function of a large set of soil and environmental variables, representing factors that represent soil mineralogy, climate, vegetation, topography, and soil microbial diversity. We used a quantitative hierarchical framework over three distinct climate zones to gain a systematic understanding of the controls of SOC variability at a macro, regional and local scale. Over the macro-scale of the rangelands, we find that climate is the dominant control of SOC in the Australian rangelands and influences SOC both directly and indirectly through its effects on vegetation growth. At the regional scale, the distribution of SOC is largely determined by regional controls such as soil texture and mineralogy and microbial diversity, vegetation cover and type and plant species richness, and local terrain features. At a local transect scale, SOC variability is affected by vegetation type and biomass, terrain attributes (terrain wetness index, plan curvature and erosion), soil mineralogy and microbial diversity. At these local scales, where plant carbon inputs are not limited by climate, vegetation type is the most significant driver. Where plant carbon inputs are limited by climate, SOC is controlled by vegetation biomass and type and soil mineralogy. Vegetation with shallow roots and limited soil development, contributes minimal carbon to the subsoil, whereas deep-rooted vegetation, less limited by climate, sequesters significant carbon. Our results provide insights into the drivers of SOC content in Australian rangelands and could serve to develop strategies for long-term SOC sequestration and restoration.

Keywords: Soil organic carbon, Environmental drivers, Spatial scales, Soil depth, Rangelands

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Mingxi Zhang (Contact Author)

Curtin university ( email ).

Kent Street Bentley Perth, WA 6102 Australia

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on SSRN?

Paper statistics, related ejournals, ecosystem ecology ejournal.

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

Global Ecological Change & Pollution Ecology eJournal

Ecological modeling ejournal, environmental geoscience ejournal, environmental chemistry ejournal.

IEEE Account

• Change Username/Password
• Update Address

Purchase Details

• Payment Options
• Order History
• View Purchased Documents

Profile Information

• Communications Preferences
• Profession and Education
• Technical Interests
• US & Canada: +1 800 678 4333
• Worldwide: +1 732 981 0060
• Contact & Support
• About IEEE Xplore
• Accessibility
• Terms of Use
• Nondiscrimination Policy
• Privacy & Opting Out of Cookies

A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. © Copyright 2024 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this web site signifies your agreement to the terms and conditions.