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• Review article
• Open access
• Published: 14 September 2020

Injera (An Ethnic, Traditional Staple Food of Ethiopia): A review on Traditional Practice to Scientific Developments

• Satheesh Neela   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6474-2594 1 &
• Solomon Workneh Fanta  

Journal of Ethnic Foods volume  7 , Article number:  32 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Injera is fermented Ethiopian ethnic traditional staple food prepared usually form teff flour [ Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter]. Almost all the Ethiopians consume this food at least once in a day. Injera preparation composed of many steps, starting from grain preparation to baking; these all steps are still performing with indigenous knowledge with traditional practices. This Ethiopian national super food appreciating in many western countries due to the superior nutritional properties, especially lack of gluten and good mineral compositions (Rich of Iron). Research on injera preparation from composite flours for nutritional enhancement and sensory quality improvements were took lion share in reported scientific research. However, limited research was reported on preservation of injera by chemical ingredients and natural species, microbes involved in fermentation and spoilage. In addition, very fewer studies were reported on effect of milling quality of injera seed and role of fermentation on anti-nutritional factors degradation. However, scientific review to show the injera traditional practice and scientific research undertaken in this area is hardly found. In considering above all, this review is under taken with objective to review the traditional ethnic practice and scientific research reported on injera preparation.

Introduction

" Injera " is an Amharic term for Ethiopian bread similar to pan cake, made usually from teff. Injera is thin, prepared from teff flour, water and starter (a fluid collected from previously fermented mix) after successive fermentations [ 1 ]. The best acceptable (sensory) injera should be rich in eyes, softer, thin, rolable and sour taste due to the fermentation process [ 2 ]. Injera is a traditional common ethnic staple food consumed in all the parts of the Ethiopia and Eretria, some parts of the Somalia [ 3 ]. However, small portion of rice, wheat, enset ( Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) based foods consumed as part of the staple food along with injera in Ethiopia [ 4 ]. Gebrekidan and Gebrehiwot described that distinctive injera is in a circle shape, softer in texture, spongy and resilient, about 6 mm in thickness, 60 cm in diameter with uniformly spaced honeycomb-like ‘eyes’ on the top [ 5 ].

Flatten breads/pan cakes with or without fermentation is very famous in diverse areas of the world, they may be differs each in the ingredients and preparation process, size and sensory properties. The foods similar to the injera were available in all over the world, as stated in the previous, their ingredients and processing methods may be different from the injera. Some examples are Dosa (India) [ 6 ], Cong You Bing (China), Apam balik (Chains, Taiwan, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore) [ 7 ], Baghrir (Algeria and Morocco) [ 8 ], Bánh cuốn (Northern Vietnam) [ 9 ], Blini (Russia, Ukraine and Belarus) [ 10 ], Cachapa (Venezuela) [ 11 ], Chatānmari (Nepal) [ 12 ], kissra (Sudan) [ 13 ].

Teff is an ancient crop belongs to family poaceae, it is very popular in highlands of Ethiopia since more than 2,000 years. Ethiopia is considered as the place of teff origin [ 14 ] and domestication [ 15 ]. Teff was reported extensive distribution in high elevation and rainfall regions of central, eastern and southern Africa. Now, nutritionists considered teff as an ancient and “super grain”. Teff cultivation has also reported in some other parts of the world like, USA, South Africa, Australia, India, Kenya, Eritrea, Djibouti, south-eastern Sudan and Netherlands [ 16 ].

Teff appreciated for balanced nutrition properties, reported to possess protein in the range of 9.4–13.3% by superior equilibrium in essential amino acids like leucine, valine, proline, alanine, glutamic and aspartic acids are the major. In case of the carbohydrates, 73% of starch present in whole kernel stored as multilateral starch granules in the endosperm of the grain [ 15 ]. Teff reported 2.6–3.0 % of ash, and 2.0–3.1% of lipid [ 15 , 17 ] with rich amounts of minerals like Iron, Calcium, Zinc, Magnesium than other cereals [ 18 ]. The nutritional composition of the Teff and teff injera from USDA data base is presented in Table 1 [ 19 , 20 ]

In certain aspects, teff injera was considered greater to wheat bread and has possible nutritional importance. Teff is the most well-liked grain for preparation of injera, even though additional grains such as sorghum, maize, barley, wheat and finger millets reported to use occasionally. Usually, injera is consumed along with the stew called as “ wot ” [ 21 ]. The term wot meaning is ‘wet’ in Amharic language, the resemblance English meaning is a stew. The stew is made from vegetables and animal meat and served with injera. “Doro-wot” is a stew prepared from chicken, onions, red pepper, spices, butter and water. “Shiro” is a most common wot prepared from lentils, pulses, spices, red pepper etc [ 22 ]. However, injera also consumes commonly with cooked meat, boiled vegetables like beat root, cabbage, potato, spinach, kale, etc. The honey-comb like eyes help in the grasping of wot which soaks into the pores on the surface of injera [ 23 ].

In Ethiopia still the injera preparation and consumption carrying by traditional practices only. However, scientific research on areas like injera from composite flour; microbiological properties and preservation were reported. In this regards, the objective of this paper is to review the traditional practice and scientific research related to the injera preparation.

History, cultural and Ethnic Aspects of Injera

According to the Stewart and Getachew [ 1 ], the history of injera preparation is a mistery, however, they reported that from unpublished sources injera dated back to the 100 B.C. In case of the teff grain, the history was dated back to the 3350 BC, archeologists reported the presence of teff grain in Egypt pyramids [ 24 ]. However, some authors are reported the evidence of excavated cooking pans of injera and “ shiro” (a stew with lentils) (Fig. 2 A) dated back to the 600 AD [ 25 ].

Ethiopians have special beliefs and attitudes towards to the foods in this regard; injera’s role in Ethiopian culture is significant and prestigious. In Ethiopia, people always celebrate national and religious holidays including their family gatherings like marriage, birthday, and death ceremonies. In all the situations injera makes majority of the food in lunch and dinner times. However, the dried injera is reconstituted in to a spicy, usually vegan diet constitutes of garlic and tomato sauce consumed in breakfast called as “ firfir” . Injera usually consumes with “ wot” , it is a traditional dish made from the mix of vegetables, meat, different spices and sauces. Usually, “ wot” served on the top of the injera. Ethiopian Orthodox Christians follows the fasting in different months in the holidays like Easter and Christmas. At these fasting days they strictly follows the vegan diet, at this duration injera consumes with wot prepared by the lentils called as “ shiro” along with different boiled vegetables and pasta (Fig. 2 E) served on a beautiful basket called as “ mesob ”. In addition, injera is still a major diet for migrant Ethiopians to different western countries. This is evident from the availability of the Ethiopian restaurants and injera in western countries where Ethiopian migrant’s populations are more.

Traditionally meal (injera) in Ethiopia consumed in the communal plate (known 2-3 people eats in one plate with same injera) it shows their relation, closeness and friendship. Amhara people in Bahir Dar region (Fig. 1 ) have a strong belief that, the woman who prepares the best quality of the injera is considered as good at domestic management. Similarly, the women who prepared injera with good eyes compared with honey bee and denote that, she is very hard working in nature. Also, injera has unique role in baptism ceremony of the new born child in orthodox Christians in Bahir dar city. In this ceremony some families practice roiling of baby in injera and they believe that, this act provides bright future and good fortune for the children. In addition, the orthodox churches the priest consumes injera after finishing the prayers, before leaving the church which is provided by the group of church members and these members feel this activity as a devotional. In Amhara region, elders gift injera to younger and blessed to have great fortune.

The Map of the Bahir dar city in Amhara region, Ethiopia

Similarly, in marriage, birth ceremonies near and dear gusts bring injera to the host and considering that this provides good feature. In case of the death ceremonies, people take injera in mesob to support the family of the death person (Fig. 2 F). Few groups in the Amhara region believe that if a person’s dreams injera consumption in sleep considered as a good sign for the future. In Ethiopia graduation ceremony is having a special role in celebrations. Guests bring injera to the graduate along with the traditional beverages like “ Talla” , “ Arake ” and all people celebrate the host’s graduation. Similarly, Ethiopian coffee ceremony is the very famous and celebrates in different holidays, in this ceremony injera used to distribute to the gust along with the coffee.

Some of the pictures showed the historical evidences and the traditional practice of injera in Ethiopia. A. Injera cooking in a mitad (left) and spicy wot cooking in a clay pot from the findings of an early 1970s excavation of Aksumite mitads, placing them in the late fifth or sixth centuries, thus some time before 600 AD (Source: Harry Kloman 2013, [ 25 ]); B. Ethiopian carrying injera in mesob on his head (Source: Harry Kloman 2013, [ 25 ]); C & D. The Ethiopian currency 10 birr note printed with misob, a traditional injera serving basket handmade with specific grass and threads; E. Injera placed on the the beautiful messob served with different; F. This is the image shows that the near and dear carrying the injera in misob to a funeral happening in the next village (Marian 2011, [ 26 ])

Particularly, in the rural areas the agriculture activities like harvesting and post harvest processing are shared by neighbors or small community. The person used the service of the neighbors in these activities at the time of meal serves injera with different traditional drinks as the token of love and thankfulness. In all such cases there is no wages for the work. A mesob (a injera placing basket) is printed on the 10 bir note (Ethiopian currency), it shows the importance of injera in Ethiopian culture as a national food (Fig. 2 C, D).

Traditional practices in Injera preparation

The ratio of the teff and different other grains in the injera depends on the traditional practices, previous experience, family financial status and family practices. Teff is a major cereal and millets, barley, wheat, sorghum, maize are reported to use in different proportions. The traditional preparation of injera batter was presented in Fig. 3 . Depending on the requirements, grains used to prepare by removing the inferior quality grains and dust like chuff and other unwanted materials. Further, all the cereals used to converts into flour by the commercial mills (disc mills are the commonly used). It is a practice to mix one part of flour with two parts of water and about 16 % “ersho” by weight of the flour [ 22 , 27 , 28 ]. The container used to mix the components called as “bohaka” which made of clay, metal or wooden container. The flour, water and ersho are meticulously mixed by hand stirring to form a thin, watery paste and left for primary fermentation around 30 to 72 hours [ 28 ]. However, the fermentation time depends on the altitude (which determines the temperature) of the area, the concentration of the ersho and the type of the container used [ 27 ]. Scientific study reported that, ersho contained 96.4% moisture, 0.05 mg riboflavin/100 g, and 0.4 mg of niacin/ 100 g [ 29 ]. Ashenafi reported the pH of ersho samples was about 3.5 and titratable acidity was ranged among 3.1% - 5.7% [ 30 ].

The traditional teff flour fermentation process for injera preparation. The traditional fermentation of the teff flour is very important for the preparation of the injera. In the process, the teff flour is mixed with the water and a seed culture ( Ersho ) from the previous batch. The mixture will be fermented from 2-3 days for primary fermentation. After the primary fermentation a portion of the batter mixed and boiled to produce absit . The prepared absit mixes back to the primary fermented batter and allowed for secondary fermentation for 2 hours. Finally batter is ready for injera preparations

Some researchers used varying amounts of teff flour to water ratio in teff flour fermentation. The flour to water ratio varies in literature from 1:1 to 2:3. The flour: water ratio of 1:1 was used by Abraha, et al., (2013) [ 31 ], 1:2 was used by Ashagrie and Abate, (2012) [ 28 ], Girma et al., (2013) [ 27 ] and Abiyu et al., (2013) [ 32 ] , while a ratio of 2:3 was used by Zegeye (1997) [ 22 ], 1:1.6 was used by Girma et al., (1989) and Mary et al., (1989) [ 33 , 34 ]. The time for ceases finest fermentation considered by the gas formation and the dough and small portion of the liquid phase separation on the surface [ 1 ]. Time required for the fermentation effected by diverse factors like, microbial flora of ersho and flour, fermentation temperature and the cleanliness of the container used. After about 48 to 72 hours of primary fermentation, fraction of the fermented mix is gelatinized by cooking to form “ absit ” which usually used to added back to the fermentation batter (in primary fermentation), this step initiates the ‘secondary fermentation’. Mihrete, (2019) [ 35 ], Zegeye, (1997) [ 22 ], Desiye et al., (2017) [ 36 ], Wendy Darling Attuquayefio, (2014) [ 23 ], Beruk and Fasil (2017) [ 37 ], Ronda, (2019) [ 38 ] used 10% of Absit in their research studies. However, there is a difference in the water ratio and time and cooking temperature used for preparation of absit. In contrast, few studies like Chemeda & Bussa, (2018) used 200 ml of the fermented mixture was added with 400 ml of water and brought to boiled and added back to 1kg of original flour [ 39 ]. Finally, the most of the researchers concluded that, absit is a gruel work as a dough binder in the course of secondary fermentation of dough.

After cooling back to about 46°C, absit reported to be mixed into fermenting vat for the second phase of fermentation which allowed for about 2 h. After adding, absit develops the gas formation and causes the paste to rise [ 40 ]. Adding absit is also critical to develop the desired texture and consistency, as injera made without absit tends to be powdery and have fewer eyes which are not liked by Ethiopian consumers. It is conformed that, teff, millet, and corn are the only grains that require absit during the process of making injera [ 29 ]. Finally, researchers reported that absit has a significant influence on the physico-chemical and sensory quality of injera.

Once fermented batter is ready after the successful primary and secondary fermentations, injera griddled by pouring about two-third liter of the batter onto the hot greased plate known as “metad” (injera griddle made of clay) using circular movement from the peripheries to the center (Fig. 4 C, D), by closing a lid known as “kidan” (Fig. 4 E). For this poring process a special plastic device used known as “Mazoria” (Fig. 4 A). It was reported that, injera cooks about 2-3 minutes at metad temperature of 90-95 o C [ 41 ]. Rapeseed oil is a common lubricant used to grease the metad between each injera baking. Several layers of injera traditionally stored in a ‘messob’ (traditional straw basket) (Fig. 4 H, I) with tight packing in polythene cover. It is a traditional practice for preservation of injera for three days in a cool, dry and ventilated place.

The baking process of the injera. The properly fermented batter is very important for the preparation of injera. After the secondary fermentation the batter filled to the pouring device called as “ Mazoria” The batter will be poured on hot baking pan called as “ Metad” from outer part to inner and covered with a lid called as “Kidan” . The injera after cooked enough it will remove from the pan and packed “ Measob” . Usually, injera will be preserved for 3 days. A. Fermented batter filling in to pouring device known as “Mazoria”; B. Pouring the injera batter on to hot baking pan known as “Metad” from periphery to center; C, D. Pouring the batter on to the “Metad”; E. Covering with the lid at the time of baking known as “Kidan”; F. Baked injera ready to remove from the pan; G. Baked injera removed from “Metad”; H, I. Packing the injera in polythene sheet to pack in to “Mesob” (a traditional storage made with hard grass); J. Injera served with different boiled vegetables and stew

Scientific Research on Injera

Limited research was reported on the major areas of injera preparation. One of the well studied parts was development of injera from composite flours for the improved nutritional and sensory quality. In contrast, limited research reported on microbial characterization of the fermented batter, preservation of injera, degradation of the anti-nutritional factors and effect of processing methods on quality of the injera. However, research on the energy requirements, development of the injera cooking pans were developed and reported well. Moreover, a well reviewed document on the injera baking technologies was published by Adem and Ambie (2017) [ 42 ]. The following sections are composed of the research reported on the scientific research done on different aspects of injera.

Scientific studies reported on Composite flours for injera

As the injera preparation usually only from the cereals, nutritionists are evaluated injera is limited in protein and rich with anti-nutritional factors like tannins. However, due to the high price of the teff, preparations of the injera with the other low cost alternatives were investigated. Some researchers were investigated the affects of functional ingredients like fenugreek and flaxseed on injera nutritional and sensory quality.

Lamesgen Yegrem, (2019) was conducted a recent study to investigate the effect of lupine flour (Australian sweet lupine and Ethiopian Dibettered lupine seed) blending ratios on physico-chemical quality and sensory acceptability of injera. In this study reported that the crude protein content highly increased (11.78 to 18.84 %) as the proportion of lupines increased. Iron, zinc and calcium contents were reported higher than injera without the lupine flours. Sensory acceptability of blended injera was reduced after lupine ratio was increased above 10%. Rollability and eye distribution were reported higher for composite injera from dibettered lupine rather than Australian sweet lupine [ 43 ]. Whereas, Woldemariam et al., (2019) evaluated amaranths (0–60%), teff (40–100%), barley (0–20%) flour combinations on nutritional and sensory adequacy of injera. Protein and gross energy, calcium, iron and zinc contents were reported to increase as the rise in amaranth flour concentration and addition of barley reported rise in the carbohydrate of injera. Overall optimum concentration with protein (11.84–14.60%), carbohydrate (74.39–79.71%), Energy (363.68–381.22 kcal/100 g), Fe (29.34–42.44 mg/100 g), and Ca (177.42 −430.47 mg/100 g) of injera was reported in a range of 40–77.5% teff, 12.5–60% amaranths and 0–10% barley. However, sensory adequacy was reported to decrease with rise in the proportion of amaranths and barley. The overall optimum point was reported in a range of Amaranth of 12.5–60%, Barely of 0–10% and teff of 40–77.5%. Finally, concluded that blending of teff, amaranths, and barley flours can improve the proximate and mineral composition of injera [ 44 ].

Mihrete, (2019) determined effect of the faba bean (5-15%), sorghum (20-30%) and teff (55-70%) flour combinations and fermentation time (24, 48 and 72 h) on mineral contents and sensory quality of injera. High concentration of Fe (22.66 mg/100 g), Zn (23.81 mg/100 g) and Ca (187.25 mg/100 g) contents were reported in injera prepared with 55% teff, 30% sorghum and 15% faba bean, fermented for 72 h. Sensory adequacy of injera scored a mean rating well above the average acceptability. Finally, Mihrete, (2019) reported that, most favored injera by assessors was teff flour combined with 20% sorghum and 10% faba bean flours fermented for 72 h [ 35 ].

Daka et al., (2019) evaluated the effect of fenugreek (roasted, germinated and raw) on phyto-chemical contents and antioxidant capacity of teff injera. The maximum total flavonoid content (117.4 mg/g) and total condensed tannin content (18.44 mg/g) were reported in injera prepared with 5% roasted and 5% raw fenugreek. The 5% roasted fenugreek substituted injera showed strongest anti-oxidant properties than control. Finally, researchers concluded the substitution of processed fenugreek flour with teff flour reported enhancement in antioxidant ability and total flavonoid composition than raw fenugreek flour added injera [ 45 ]. In addition, Daka et al., (2019) determined the effect 5% germinated fenugreek substitution on injera in other study. Similarly, results showed the highest crude protein (15.90%), crude fiber (3.42%) and ash (2.86 %) crude fat content (11.90 %) for the injera prepared with 5% raw fenugreek-substituted. 5% roasted fenugreek-substituted injera had reported the highest Ca (168.7 mg/100 g), Mg (16.3 mg/100 g), Zn (2.0 mg/100 g) and Fe (2.45 mg/100 g). Injera with 1% fenugreek rated as more overall sensory acceptable than that of 5% [ 46 ].

Tamene et al., (2019) assessed the total folate contents of teff flour, fermented batter and injera by microbial assays using Lactobacillus rhamnosus (ATCC 7469). Folate content of teff flour was determined as 8.7 μg/100 g and reported as similar with oats (Consider as folate rich cereals), however injera reported as 14.3 μg/100 g. Researchers were reported as the increase in folate content and showed high variability (60–148%). Cooking process of injera reported loss (52.8%) in the folate content. In this research they concluded that injera fermentation reported to augmented folate retention raged as 38.0 and 121.8% [ 47 ] .

Similarly, Chemeda & Bussa, (2018) evaluated the effect of amaranth grain addition on injera quality. From this research injera reported that, amaranths grain addition had developed more accepted colour, consistently dispersed eyes, non-sticky and soft surface [ 39 ]. In other study, Cherie et al., (2018) reported the optimization study of injera made from blends of teff (70–100%), maize (0–30%) and rice (0–30%). In this study reported that, minerals (mg/100 g) in injera varied from Iron: 17.7 to 25.1 Zinc: 1.62–2.10, and Calcium: 25.9 to 51.1. Sensory acceptability of color, taste, texture, number of eyes, eye size, eye distribution, top & bottom surface and overall acceptability were reported superior for injera from blends. Optimum compositions for the injera with the best acceptable color, overall sensory acceptability reported as 70% teff, 0% maize and 30% rice with a desirability of 0.909 [ 48 ].

For the first time, Agza, et al., (2018) reported the quinoa flour substitution in injera preparation. The overall essential amino acid profile of the teff and quinoa injera considered as well-balanced. Quinoa replacement from 0 to 40%, reported the protein, fat, fiber and ash contents of the injera was increased. In case of sensory attributes for taste, aroma, rollability, eyes evenness, underneath color and overall acceptability had shown decreasing by increasing the quinoa compositions. Finally, in this research concluded that up to 30% quinoa flour can incorporate to teff flour with good nutritional profiles without adverse effect on sensory attributes of teff-quinoa injera [ 49 ].

Abraha & Abay (2017) evaluated the sensory properties of injera made from combination of diverse cereals (Teff, barley, sorghum and maize) in the proportion of 100, 75, 50 and 25%. The outcome of their research revealed that cereal flour blends in injera reported the non significant variation in texture, mouth feel, and overall acceptability, colour, taste and the appearance of injera surface eyes. From this study results concluded that, quality of injera prepared with teff and other cereals ranked next to merely teff [ 50 ].

Beruk and Fasil, (2017) determined the effect of blending ratio of cassava (up to 30%) on nutritional, physico-chemical property and sensory adequacy of injera. Cassava addition reported to significantly reduce all macro nutrients except carbohydrate. From this study outcome reported that, all sensory attributes were significantly affected due to increased cassava flour except color. Increasing the amount of cassava improved the water absorption capacity [ 37 ].

Ghebrehiwot et al., (2016) determined the adequacy of injera prepared by grains of a closely related but underutilized grass, Eragrostis curvula (Schrad) and 0, 5, 10% of sorghum flour. Nutritional profile of E. curvula was reported twice the amount of crude protein than teff. E. curvula also contains fat, fiber and minerals better than teff. Injera made of teff and E. curvula flours showed non-significant differences in taste, texture, appearance and overall acceptability. This study suggested that E. curvula has the potential to serve as a novel source of gluten-free flour for human consumption. Agronomical reports suggested that cultivation of E. curvula is more advantageous among the small scale farmers on marginal lands due to the capability of harvest seeds twice a year (unlike teff) and tolerance to the acidic soils (better than teff) [ 51 ].

Abera et al., (2016) prepared injera by incorporation of taro flour ( Colocasia esculenta ) in to teff flour. Results were reported that, sensory properties of injera were reported lower with the rise in taro levels. The proximate composition of the injera reported that, moisture content, protein, crude fiber, fat and carbohydrate was reported not statically differences. In contrast, ash content showed a significance difference. The optimum point for sensory and proximate composition for injera preparation was 15:85 for taro and teff, respectively [ 52 ].

Girma, et al., (2013) reported the effect of teff flour mix with flaxseed on mineral content, antioxidant activity, phytic acid content and microbial quality of injera. The results were reported that, functional character enhanced by substitution with whole flaxseed and flour of flaxseed and 3%, 6% and 9% flaxseed incorporation levels. Injera with whole and powdered flaxseed showed a significant effect on minerals, antioxidant properties, phytic acid and microbial quality of injera. From this study reported that, 9% flaxseed substitution increased the antioxidant power, Zinc and Calcium contents. In contrast phytic acid and Iron contents were deceased as compared to the control [ 27 ]. Similarly, Girma, et al., (2013) in other study reported flaxseed incorporation had a considered impact on moisture, fiber, titratable acidity, pH of the injera. The flaxseed-substituted injera sensory attributes were reported statistically significant different with control. Rise in flaxseed levels reported the increase in sensory scores for rollability, sourness, odour, flavour and overall acceptability, in contrast, colour, injera eyes and underneath colour scores decreased. Finally, reported that, 9% whole flaxseed flour partial replacement of teff flour had showed improvement in nutritional composition and functional properties includes the dietary fiber, ω-3 fatty acid, proteins, lignans and antioxidant proportion [ 2 ].

Abraha et al., (2013) investigated the differences in injera quality by addition of different variety of barley and teff. Significant variation in sensory quality were reported for two barley varieties (Haftusene and Himblil 2011) [ 31 ].

Mohammed, et al., (2011) was carried the research to evaluate nutritional value of sorghum flour incorporation in injera. From this research revealed that injera with sorghum flour posses lower protein, ash and fat contents but high in fiber content. Moreover, injera was found to have significantly higher in energy (389.08 Kcal/100g) lower in anti-nutritional factors. Injera with sorghum flour reported with appreciable amount of amino acids except Arginine and Tyrosine [ 53 ].

Yetneberk, et al., (2004) studied the effects of 12 sorghum cultivar on injera quality. Form this study they concluded that sorghum cultivar type was significantly affects injera making quality. Cultivars like AW (floury endosperm), 3443-2-op and 76TI #23 (intermediate), and PGRC/E #69349 (with more vitreous endosperm) were generally associated with soft, rollable and fluffy positive attributes of injera [ 54 ].

Zewdie, et al., (1997) prepared injera by co-fermentation of kocho, a product from the false banana with barley to determine its nutrient composition and the microorganisms involved in the fermentation process. The co-fermentation of kocho with barley increased the protein content of the fermented injera by 2.6-fold. The injera prepared from co-fermented dough of kocho and barley was found to be acceptable to Ethiopian consumers and had very good keeping qualities [ 55 ]..

Cherinet, (1993) prepared a composite flour with inexpensive cereal grains for making injera. Sixty four combinations were baked; their physical characteristics and shelf-life properties were tested. The best composition was determined as teff (35%), wheat (25%) and sorghum (40%) for the best sensorial properties. The authors are reported that, 27% of the cost reduction was reported in the injera by the prepared composites [ 56 ].

From the research reported on the composite flour cleared that, type of the composition, quantity affected on the injera physical, sensory and compositional properties as the composition and quantities are varied.

Studies reported on the microbiology of injera fermentation

Tadesse et al., (2019) reported yeast is responsible for injera fermentation also they identified Pichia fermentans , Pichia occidentalis , Candida humilis , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and Kazachstania bulderi species in fermented injera batter. This study has confirmed the presence of different yeast species in the fermented mix and conformed the complex nature of injera dough fermentation [ 57 ]. Desiye & Abegaz, (2013) reported the microbial composition of 34 injera batter samples, and identified 107 lactic acid bacteria strains (LAB) and 68 yeast strains were isolated and identified. The LAB strains were identified was Pediococcus pentosaceus (49.53%), Lactobacillus fermentum (28.04%), Lactococcus piscium (5.61%), Lactococcus plantarum (4.67%), Pediococcus acidilactici (3.74%), Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteriodes (2.80%), Lactococcus raffinolactis (2.80%), L. mesenteriodes subsp. dextranicum (1.87%), Enterococcus cassiiflavus (0.93%), and the yeast strains comprised Saccharomyces cerevisiae (48.53%), Candida humilis (22.06%), Candida tropicalis (17.65%), Saccharomyces exiguus (7.35%) and Pichia norvegensis (4.4%) [ 58 ].

Desiye et al., (2017) collected 34 batter samples and reported the total aerobic mesophilic count, Lactic acid bacteria and yeast increased by about 3 log cycles until 48 hr fermentation, while reported the decrease of Enterobacteriaceae below detectable levels after 18 hr due to the low pH of the teff batter [ 36 ], this trend was reported by Fischer et al., (2014). In their study isolated 76 isolates from 13 different fermenting teff batters. Enterococci and Enterobacteriaceae were below the detection limits of 2 log cfu/g. Spore forming Bacillus species, yeast and mold counts were detected infrequently and considered as below detection limits. Aerobic mesophiles were reported in wide range of 3 to 7 log after 24 h incubation and increased up to 8 log cfu/g after 72 h of fermentation. The highest counts were observed for presumptive lactic acid bacteria on average 8 log cfu/g, ranging from 4 to 8 log cfu/g. These microorganisms include, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus buchneri, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus [ 59 ]

Ashenafi, (1994) reported that ersho samples pH was about 3.5 and titratable acidity was ranged between 3.1% and 5.7%. The mean aerobic mesophilic counts from four households varied between 6.9 × 10 6 and 1.3 x 10 5 cfu/ml and the aerobic bacterial flora consisted of Bacillus spp . Mean yeast counts ranged between 5.2 x 10 5 and 1.8 x 10 6 cfu/ml and comprised, in order of abundance, Candida milleri , Rhodotorula mucilaginosa , Kluyveromyces marxianus , Pichia naganishii and Debaromyces hansenii . Candida milleri was reported as the most dominant isolate in all samples. About 90% of the teff batter samples reported for aerobic mesophilic counts ~10 5 cfu/g and Gram-positive bacteria constituted about 71% of the total isolates. About 80% of samples had Enterobacteriaceae counts of 10 4 cfu/g [ 30 ]. Zewdie, et al., (1997) reported that the predominant organisms identified were Lactobacillus , Bacillus and Yeasts . The fermentation process was characterized by the fall in pH from 5.0 to 4.2 and rise in the titratable acidity from 0.20 to 0.50% during 96 hrs of fermentation [ 55 ].

Gashe determined the involvement of LAB in the fermentation of injera batter, reported as Enterobacteriaceae initiates the fermentation and actions during the first 18 hr of fermentation reduce the pH of the dough to 5.8. In next stage identified the role of Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Streptococcus faecalis and observed the further reduction in pH to 4.7. In addition reported that, fermentation was carried out by predominating flora of Pediococcus cerevisiae , Lactobacillus brevis , Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus fermentum and remained until the fermentation is terminated at 72 hr [ 40 ]. Different scientists reported the role of yeasts at later stage of the fermentation. However, mould related information was not reported in the fermented batters. In contrast, Geta (2019), isolated the fungal species of different genera of Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Mucor species were isolated from spoiled teff injera [ 60 ].

Tilahun et al., (2018) isolate and identified the yeasts from fermenting teff dough and reported as Pichia fermentans , Pichia spp., Rhodotorula aurantiaca B, Pichia fluxuum , Candida humilis , Trichosporon beigelii B and, Cryptococcus albidus Var aerus [ 61 ] . Umeta & Faulks, (1989) initially identified the action of the endogenous micro flora to produce sour dough. Also reported that, Lactic and acetic acids were the major organic acids produced (90 %) with seven other volatile fatty acids, propionic, isobutyric, n-butyric, isovaleric, n-valeric, isocaproic, n-caproic repre- senting less than 5% [ 62 ].

Scientific Studies reported on Preservation of Injera

Usually on household level injera reported to be preserved for 2-3 days, again these duration may be depends on the processing, hygiene, variation in preparation practices, composition of the ingredients. However, very few preservation studies were carried by administration of chemical preservatives and the natural spices. Those reported studies are summarized in the following text.

Ashagrie and Abate, (2012) reported that, Aspergillus niger , Penicillium sp and Rhizopus sp found to be responsible in injera spoilage. Penicillium and Rhizopus are more dominant at the temperature of between 16-20 0 C, while Aspergillus niger is more dominant at higher temperature of between 25-32 0 C [ 28 ]. Hassen, et al., (2018) also confirmed that at room temperature moulds took essential role in spoilage of injera and reported shelf life of 2-3 days [ 63 ].

Girma et al., (2013),was determined the effect of flax seed on the injera shelf life from 2 to 6 days, yeast-mould (2.27 to 3.93 log cfu/g) and total aerobic plate counts (Not Detected to 3.77 log cfu/g) were lowest for 9% flaxseed substitution and highest for the control injera [ 27 ].

Zewdu, (2009), studied the effect of 0.1% of benzoic acid/ sodium benzoate, 0.2 % of potassium sorbate, 0.3 % of calcium propionate and 0.2% blend of the flour on weight basis according to the Food and Drug Administration recommendations for 12 days of the storage. The effectiveness of preservation was ranked as sodium benzoate>benzoic acid>potassium sorbate >blend >calcium propionate. The authors are reported that benzoates and benzoic acid are the most effective in preservation of the injera [ 64 ]. Similarly, Hassen and his co-workers determined the effects of benzoic acid (0.1%), sodium benzoate (0.1%), and potassium sorbate (0.2%) and 1:1:1 blend of the three (0.2%) on injera shelf life. This researchers were confirmed that chemical preservatives (0.1 benzoic acid, 0.2% potassium sorbate, 0.1% sodium benzoate and 0.2% of the three preservatives) have capacity to extent the shelf-life of injera up to 10 days at room temperature [ 63 ].

In contrast Geta, (2019), evaluated the efficiency of locally available spices to enhance the shelf life and sensory attributes of teff injera. In the study used powder form of spice, hydro and ethanol extract of Nigella sativa seeds , Trigonella foenum seeds, Curcuma longa rhizomes, Carum at 2% concentration was used in the preservation of the injera. Shelf life of teff injera containing 2 % powder, water extract and ethanol extract of T. foenum were 7, 7 and 9 days; C. sativum were 8, 8 and 11 days; N. sativa were 7, 8 and 10 days; C. copticum were 8, 7 and 9 days and C. longa were 5, 5 and 6 days reported, respectively [ 60 ].

Studies on the effect of processing methods on Quality of Injera

Hassen et al., (2018) reported the effect of the starter cultures ( Lactobacillus plantarum + Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) on rice-teff injera quality produced under controlled fermentation. Reported that best acceptability in softness, fluffiness, sponginess, slight sourness and eye size are attributes associated with quality of rice injera attributed to starter culture [ 65 ].

Wendy Attuquayefio, (2014) reported the effects of fermentation time and viscosity of batter on the elasticity and eye formation of injera and conformed that, both the factors were possess a significant effect on elasticity and eye formation in injera. Also reported that, injera from low or high viscosity batters produced fewer eyes on their surfaces. In the study concluded that, Injera batter with viscosity of 1.1 to 1.4 required for injera with more eyes. Moreover, addition of sodium metabisulphite (a reducing agent) in to batter reported a good elasticity and eye formation in injera this attributed to the contribution of the disulfide bonds in proteins to elasticity and eye formation [ 23 ].

Yetneberk, et al., (2005) evaluated the grain decortications and compositing with teff flour as methods to enhance the quality of injera made from tannin-containing and tannin-free red sorghums. From their research reported that, decortication and compositing are the both efficient ways to enhance the injera quality by both tannin-containing and tannin-free red sorghums. Also they were identified that, decortication positively influence the color and other quality properties of injera by decreasing the level of non-starch components of the grains. In the case of tannin-containing sorghum, decortication was reported for removal of tannins, improving injera fermentation. Same authors were reported that, mechanical abrasion is a best method to remove the tannins than the hand pounding to obtain injera with good sensory acceptable level [ 66 ]. Similarly, Seyoum et al., (2016) determined nutrient preservation, and the fate of iron-binding polyphenols during injera processing by improved tannin-free and high-tannin sorghum cultivars. In this study confirmed that, the high-tannin sorghum had significantly higher iron-binding polyphenols contents than the tannin-free sorghum. Decortication reported the loss of iron, calcium, iron-binding polyphenols, and tannin losses. In the same study reported that, sourdough fermentation processes reduced the iron-binding polyphenols and tannin levels in high-tannin sorghum. However, reported that, pre-soaking reduced the highest iron-binding polyphenols [ 67 ].

Assefa et al., (2018) studied the effect of mill type used in teff grinding on different properties of injera. In this study concluded that, differences in mill type used affected the color of the teff flour in contrast, the final color of the injera was not affected. The variation in injera sensory property and starch digestibility was reported and attributed to the variation in mill type used, where particle size distribution and the damaged starch levels were varied. The use of disc mill reported the tiny flour particle with high starch damage and reported a best sensory acceptability than that of blade mill and hammer mill. Blade mill reported to produce a larger flour particle size with lower rapid available glucose and digested starch [ 68 ].

Yoseph et al., (2018) determined the mechanical kneading and absit preparation on the quality of teff injera. They reported that, variation in kneading time and speed not affected free sugar, slow digestible starch, resistant starch, total starch and starch digestion rate index. This study also reported that, flavonoids, total phenolis and phytate contents depends on the kneading time-speed combinations. In addition, kneading process reported the overall acceptability of injera. In the same study confirmed that, absit preparation (water to fermented dough ratio) also found to affect the quality of teff injera. Same was confirmed by the study of Yoseph et al., (2018), where absit was prepared from 100 ml of fermented dough and 900 ml of water had the highest injera overall quality while, the lowest was observed in absit prepared from 300 ml of fermented dough and 100 ml of water [ 69 ]. Dessalegn Abit (2018) reported the study on absit process factors dough level (10-20 %), agitation speed (200-300 rpm) and adding temperature (45-65 0 C) on injera quality. From this study, concluded that, the optimum processing factors of absit by considering taste, texture, number of eyes, eye size, eye distribution, top & bottom surface and overall acceptability were dough level of 11.06 %, agitation speed of 200rpm and temperature of 45 o C with a desirability of 0.91 [ 70 ].

Scientific studies on the degradation of Anti-nutrition factors in injera

Baye et al., (2014) reported variations in mineral absorption inhibitors by fermentation of injera. The highest Fe, Zn and Ca contents were found in teff–white sorghum injera. The lowest phytic acid: Fe and phytic acid: Zn molar ratios were found in barley–wheat and wheat–red sorghum injera. Although, ideal phytic acid: Fe molar ratios (<0.4) were found in barley–wheat and wheat–red sorghum [ 71 ]. However, Baye et al., (2015) evaluated the effect of phytate removal, iron-binding polyphenols and dietary fibers on iron bio-accessibility in wheat-red sorghum and teff-white sorghum to make injera, by the application of exogenous enzymes. In this study confirmed that, the hydrolysis of dietary fibers improved iron bio-accessibility, suggesting the effect of the fiber is independent of phytate content. The researchers confirmed the improvement of iron bio-accessibility by applying a mix of phytase, cellulase, xylanase and Polyphenol oxidase enzymes [ 72 ].

Assefa et al., (2018) determined the mechanical mill type, kneading speed-time combinations on fermentation kinetics was investigated and phytate to mineral molar ratio (Fe, Zn and Ca) of teff injera. In both milling and kneading levels reported maltose was the highest sugar concentration initially, than followed by glucose and fructose. As fermentation continued, a similar trend in maltose break down was reported in all studied mill types. However, for phytate/mineral molar ratio of the flours, reported significantly different both mills and kneading speed-time combinations [ 68 ].

Fischer et al., (2014) developed starter culture to substantially degrade phytic acid during injera preparation. Seventy-six isolates from 13 different teff fermentations were analyzed for phytase activity and out of 13 isolates 7 different species were detected as positive in a phytase screening assay. Lactobacillus buchneri strain MF58 and Pediococcus pentosaceus strain MF35 resulted in lowest remained phytic acid amounts after the fermentation 41% and 42%, respectively, in comparison 59% of phytic acid remained in spontaneous fermentation. From this study concluded that, L. buchneri MF58 displaying the highest phytic acid degrading potential. Similarly, Shumoy et al., (2017) evaluated the in vitro dialysability of Fe and Zn in a back slop fermented injera. They reported that, traditional fermentation leads up to 49-66% of reduction in phytic acid. Molar ratios of Phytic acid:Fe and Phytic acid:Zn was decreased from 14 to 1 and 63 to 19, respectively, after 120h of fermentation. The total soluble fractions of Fe and Zn reported in range of 11 and 38% and 11 and 29%, respectively, after 120h of fermentation [ 59 ]. Fischer et al., (2015) determined the effect of phytase enzyme on Fe bio-availability in injera. From this study reported that, iron absorption from traditional teff injera was low, suggesting that reducing the phytate content of teff injera by either co-fortification with wheat or addition of purified phytase provides the more than doubled iron bioavailability from this Ethiopian staple food and would provide additional absorbable iron [ 73 ].

Studies reported on fermentation kinetics

Baye et al., (2013) reported the control of cereal blends, teff–white sorghum, barley–wheat and wheat–red sorghum, on fermentation kinetics in traditional fermentation of dough. In the study reported that, wheat–red sorghum and barley–wheat injera sourdough fermentations were characterized by a transient accumulation of glucose and maltose and a two-step fermentation process: lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation with ethanol as the major end product. Also concluded that, only transient accumulation of glucose was observed in teff–white sorghum , and equimolar concentrations of lactic acid and ethanol were produced simultaneously. Final α-galactoside concentrations were reported low in all sourdoughs [ 74 ].

Studies reported on bioactive compounds

Shumoy et al., (2017) investigated the cause of fermentation on soluble and bound phenolic profiles and antioxidant potential of fermented injera for different intervals from 4 teff varieties of brown and white color. They concluded that, the contribution of soluble phenolic extracts to the total phenolic content ranged from 14 to 17% and 17–32%, before and after fermentation, respectively. In phenolic acids, identified the gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric, salicylic, ferulic acid, catechin and naringenin reported in both in the fermented and unfermented injera from Quncho and Zezew teff varieties. They confirmed that by 72 h of fermentation time, the majority of the phenolic compounds increased in the range of 42–1805% in soluble and decreased by 2–100% in bound extracts in both varieties. Finally, established that, fermentation for 72 h brown seed colored varieties (Zagurey and Zezew) showed superior in total phenolic and antioxidant contents compared to the white varieties (Quncho and Tsedey) [ 75 ]. Similarly, Shumoy et al., (2019) simulated static in vitro digestion of teff injera , sampled after different fermentation times, was performed to measure the dialyzable and soluble non-dialyzable total phenolic, total flavonoid contents, and their total antioxidants. The absolute total flavonoid contents fractions decreased as the fermentation increased from 0 to 120 h. No clear pattern in the absolute radical scavenging capacity of the fractions was observed among different fermentation times [ 76 ].

Shumoy & Raes, (2017) determined the in vitro starch digestibility of injera from seven teff varieties and estimated the glycemic index. The total starch, free glucose, apparent amylose, resistant, slowly digestible and rapidly digestible starches of the varieties ranged between 66 and 76, 1.8 and 2.4g/100g flour dry matter, 29 and 31%, 17 and 68, 19 and 53, 12 and 30g/100g starch, respectively. Finally, concluded that, teff injera classified as medium to high Glycimic Index (GI) foods, not to be considered as a proper food ingredient for diabetic people and patients in weight gain [ 77 ].

Boka, et al., (2013), reported the antioxidant properties of the injera prepared with white, brown and red teff variety and enriched with fenugreek. The anti-oxidant properties were observed in red teff while the lowest was shown in white teff. Total phenol content was higher in red teff (11.47 mg GAE/g) as compared to brown teff (9.72 mg GAE/g) and white teff (8.28 mg/ GAE/g). Total flavonoids for white, brown and red teff were 1.03 mg/g, 1.78 mg /g and 2.13 mg/g, respectively. In antioxidant activities of injera decreased in the order of red teff injera > brown teff injera > white teff injera in the same processing conditions. This study concluded that, fermented teff injera (18 hrs of fermentation) had high antioxidant capacity than fully fermented teff injera (72 hrs of fermentation) among the same teff varieties [ 78 ].

Conclusions

Injera is a traditional Ethiopian staple diet for all the Ethiopians, still injera preparation is practicing in traditionally by using traditional approch. However, scientific community is conducted research on composite flour development for the better nutritional and sensory quality of the injera. In this area, researchers, studied the different teff, sorghum, barley varieties on nutritional and sensory properties and conformed that, verities are responsible for variation in the injera quality. The other major food ingredients was used in the composite flour development in the injera was, Lupine, Amaranth, Faba bean, Fenugreek, Maize, Rice, Cassava, Taro, Quinoa, Flaxseed, Kocho, All these ingredients types and their concentration reported to effected the nutritional, sensory and storage quality of injera. Different researchers were conformed the role of yeast and Lactic acid Bacteria in the fermentation process of the teff batter. Among the yeasts major reported were, Pichia , Candida , Saccharomyces species. In the case of the Lactic Acid Bacteria, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus , Leuconostoc , Pediococcus and Streptococcus species. In contrast, studies hardly find to determine the micro-organisms present in the injera after baking the batter. However, Injera usually preserved up to 3 days of the fermentation, and scientists are identified the fungi is the responsible for the injera spoilage like, Mucor, Rhizopus, Aspergillus species. Very limited studies are reported on the preservation of injera, reported the use of the chemical preservatives like Benzoic acid, Sodium Benzoate, Potassium Sorbate, Calcium Propionate. However, limited studies were reported on natural spices like Nigella sativa seeds , Trigonella foenum seeds, Curcuma longa rhizomes, Carum. However, by these studies reported maximum injera can preserve for 12 days with chemical preservatives. The researchers reported few studies on the reduction of the anti-nutritional factors like the phytic acid and confirmed the mineral availability in injera by fermentation process. In case of the quality properties of the injera, scientists were reported that, the injera quality was affected by the milling type and absit preparation methods. Finally, different studies reported on the availability of phenolic acids, like gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric, salicylic, ferulic acid, catechin and naringenin in the teff and injera, concluded that, the teff varietal difference effected the phenolic acids type and composition.

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Authors are grateful to the management of the Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar University for continuous encouragement and facilitating requirements for complete this review.

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Neela, S., Fanta, S.W. Injera (An Ethnic, Traditional Staple Food of Ethiopia): A review on Traditional Practice to Scientific Developments. J. Ethn. Food 7 , 32 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-020-00069-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-020-00069-x

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In the realm of culinary delights, few things are as distinctive and culturally significant as injera. Often described as a sourdough-risen flatbread with a slightly spongy texture, injera is not just a staple food in Ethiopia but a cherished part of its cultural heritage. Exporting injera from Ethiopia is not only a business opportunity but a way to share this unique culinary tradition with the world.

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The Ethiopian Culinary Gem

1. the art of injera making.

Injera is more than just a bread; it's an art form. Made from teff flour, a tiny yet incredibly nutritious grain native to Ethiopia, the process of making injera involves fermentation. Teff is mixed with water and allowed to ferment, creating a batter that is then poured onto a hot griddle to cook. The result is a thin, tangy, and slightly sour flatbread that is not only delicious but also gluten-free.

2. Cultural Significance

Injera plays a central role in Ethiopian cuisine and culture. It's not merely a vessel for food; injera often serves as both the plate and utensil. Dishes are placed on a large piece of injera, and smaller pieces are torn off to scoop up stews, vegetables, and other accompaniments. Sharing injera is a symbol of unity and togetherness in Ethiopian communities.

Exporting Injera: Opportunities and Challenges

1. meeting global demand.

In recent years, there has been a growing global interest in diverse and authentic cuisines. Ethiopian cuisine, with injera as its centerpiece, has gained popularity for its unique flavors and communal dining experience. This presents an excellent opportunity for Ethiopian businesses to export injera to international markets.

2. Logistics and Shelf Life

One of the primary challenges in exporting injera is its relatively short shelf life due to its natural fermentation process. Proper packaging and logistics planning are crucial to ensure that the product reaches consumers in optimal condition. Vacuum-sealing and freezing techniques can extend the shelf life, making it more viable for export.

3. Compliance with Regulations

Exporting food products involves adhering to stringent quality and safety standards imposed by importing countries. Ethiopian injera exporters must navigate the regulatory landscape, which includes meeting labeling, packaging, and sanitation requirements.

4. Market Diversity

Understanding the preferences and tastes of different markets is essential. While injera may remain authentic, exploring variations, such as different sizes or flavors, can make it more appealing to a broader consumer base.

The Promising Future of Injera Exports

As global palates continue to evolve and embrace diverse cuisines, injera has the potential to become a sought-after product on international dining tables. To make the most of this opportunity, Ethiopian producers and exporters should collaborate with local authorities, invest in modern production and packaging techniques, and participate in trade shows and food exhibitions to showcase the quality and authenticity of their injera.

Ethiopia's injera is not just a food product; it's a cultural ambassador that can bridge communities and introduce the world to the rich culinary heritage of the country. Exporting injera is not merely a business venture; it's an opportunity to share a slice of Ethiopian culture and tradition with the global community, one delicious piece at a time.

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Injera Recipe: A Step-by-Step Guide to Ethiopian Flatbread

Categories Recipes

I’ve included some videos below for those who prefer to watch rather than read.

If you’ve ever wondered how to make the perfect injera, you’re in luck. Injera is a spongy, slightly sour flatbread that’s a staple in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisine. Made primarily with teff flour, it has a unique tangy flavor and a delightful texture.

Crafting authentic injera can be challenging, but it’s incredibly rewarding. The secret lies in allowing the batter to ferment properly. This gives the flatbread its distinct taste and characteristic bubbles.

You’ll find that injera pairs wonderfully with rich and flavorful stews, making it a versatile addition to your meal repertoire. Ready to get started? Let’s dive into the ingredients and steps you’ll need to create this delicious bread at home.

Exact Ingredients (+ Possible Substitutes)

When making Injera, the main ingredient is teff flour . This flour is key for the unique flavor and texture. If you can’t find teff flour, you can use whole wheat flour or a mix of all-purpose flour with buckwheat flour as substitutes.

Basic Ingredients

• Possible substitutes: 1 cup whole wheat flour + 1 cup all-purpose flour
• Adjust as needed for batter consistency
• 1/4 teaspoon salt
• 1/4 teaspoon baking soda (optional)
• 1 teaspoon apple-cider vinegar (for slight tang)

Some recipes include yeast for quick fermentation. If you don’t have yeast:

• Substitute with: 1 teaspoon baking powder

Optional Ingredients

• Substitute: Mix a teaspoon of active dry yeast with warm water and a pinch of sugar. Let it sit for about 10 minutes until foamy.

Mixing and Cooking

• Mix the ingredients well until smooth.
• Let the batter sit for fermentation (1 hour to overnight).
• Cook on a hot skillet until bubbles form and pop. Steam for a couple of minutes by covering with a lid.

By understanding these ingredients and their substitutes, you can make Injera even if you lack certain items. Enjoy experimenting and savoring your homemade Injera!

Instructions

Ingredients needed:

• 1 cup teff flour
• 1 cup all-purpose flour
• 2 cups water
• 1/2 tsp instant yeast
• 1/2 tsp baking soda
• 1/2 tsp salt
• 1 tbsp apple cider vinegar

Mix the Dry Ingredients:

• Combine the teff flour, all-purpose flour, instant yeast, baking soda, and salt in a bowl.

Add Wet Ingredients:

• Stir in the water and apple cider vinegar. Whisk until the batter is smooth.

Let the Batter Rise:

• Cover the bowl and let it sit in a warm place for about 1 hour, allowing the batter to rise.

Heat Your Pan:

• Preheat a non-stick skillet over medium-high heat.

Pour the Batter:

• Pour a thin layer of batter into the skillet. Swirl the pan to evenly distribute the batter.

Cook the Injera:

• Cook until bubbles form and the edges start to lift, about 30-60 seconds. Do not flip. Once bubbles have popped, cover with a lid and turn off the heat.

Steam Finish:

• Let the injera steam cook for a few more minutes until fully cooked.

Cool and Serve:

• Carefully remove the injera and place it on a clean towel to cool.

Enjoy your homemade injera with your favorite Ethiopian dishes!

Tips, Tricks & Storing

Consistency of the Batter

• The batter should be thick enough to coat a spoon but still pour easily. If it’s too thin, the edges will be crispy. If too thick, it will be sticky and doughy.

Cooking Technique

• Pour a thin layer of batter onto the skillet. Quickly tilt and swirl to spread the batter evenly.
• Cover and cook until bubbles form and pop. Don’t flip it; remove it once the edges lift easily.

Preventing Stickiness

• If the injera sticks to the skillet, make sure the skillet is hot enough before pouring the batter. Also, using a non-stick skillet can help.
• Store cooked injera by layering them with parchment paper in between to prevent sticking.
• Place them in a Ziploc bag and store in the fridge. They can last up to a week.
• To freeze, place layers in a freezer bag. They can last up to three months.
• Reheat in a pan over low heat or in the microwave wrapped in a damp paper towel for a few seconds.

Quick Fixes

• If the batter is too thick, add a bit of water. If it’s too thin, let it sit in the fridge to let the water separate, then pour off the excess.

Recipe Variations & Serving Suggestions

Traditional Injera : Made with teff flour, water, and a starter. Prepare the batter and let it ferment for 2-3 days. This gives it a tangy taste.

Quick Injera : For a faster version, use a mix of all-purpose flour and teff flour. Add instant yeast and let the batter rise for about an hour.

Gluten-Free Injera : Use only teff flour or a mix of teff and rice flour to make a gluten-free version. This caters to those with gluten sensitivity.

Sourdough Injera : If you have a sourdough starter on hand, mix it with teff flour for a unique flavor. It speeds up the fermentation process, reducing the time needed.

Serving Suggestions

With Dips and Stews : Injera pairs well with Ethiopian stews like Doro Wat (chicken stew) or Misir Wat (lentil stew). These dishes are spicy and flavorful, complementing the slightly sour injera.

As a Wrap : Use injera as a wrap for various fillings. This could be vegetables, meats, or a combination of both. It’s a fun and tasty way to enjoy your meal.

Side Dish : Serve injera alongside your favorite salads or soups. The spongy texture helps soak up the flavors, enhancing your dining experience.

Breakfast Option : Top injera with scrambled eggs, avocado, or a simple yogurt spread. This makes for a hearty and nutritious breakfast.

Feel free to experiment with these variations and serving ideas to enjoy injera in different ways.

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How to Make Injera Flatbread and What to Serve with It

Injera flatbread's unique, spongy texture makes it unbeatable at sopping up the maximum amount of sauce.

What is Injera Bread?

Injera flatbread is an ubiquitous side dish in several African countries, where it's used as a side dish and utensil all at once. Think of it as the Ethiopian and Eritrean answer to Indian naan or Greek pita.

Made in a large, round, flat shape, this teff-based bread is naturally fermented, gluten-free (hello, all the 21st century baking buzzwords!), and typically calls for 20 minutes or less of hands-on time to prepare. If you aren't sold on injera bread already, you sure will be when you taste this tangy delight—and use it to scoop and sop up every last drop of the dishes you serve it with.

Injera is often used as the base of a meal, over the plate yet under the stews, vegetables, salads, and meats that are complemented by the flatbread. The porous and spongy texture makes it stellar at soaking up the maximum amount of sauces and juices.

Injera Bread Ingredients

Injera bread is traditionally made with brown, red, and/or white teff flour, which is a very small grain that can only be grown in areas with a specific amount of rainfall. In regions where teff isn't commonplace, barley flour, millet flour, or wheat flour may be substituted. Buy it: Bob's Red Mill Teff Flour ($7.69 for 20 ounces, Amazon ) The hue and consistency of your homemade injera bread will vary based on the origin and color of your teff flour and if you're supplementing it with other starches.

Other than flour, most injera recipes call for only water, vegetable oil, and possibly baking soda and salt. This mixture is combined and fermented overnight or up to three days to yield that signature tangy flavor, then is cooked in a skillet or on a griddle (similar to a crepe).

How to Make Injera Bread

Our five-star Injera (Ethiopian Teff Bread) recipe will walk you through all the specifics, but the key is patience. Recipe creator Buckwheat Queen explains, "The objective of the fermentation process is to achieve a liquid mixture (like a crepe batter) with a slightly pungent smell and a moderate increase in volume. This can take up to 3 days but could occur in 12 hours, depending on the humidity and temperature of the environment."

Start with a mix of white and brown teff flour, then add water and whisk. Pour this mixture in a large bowl and cover with a thin kitchen towel or cheesecloth to allow for ventilation. Place this in a draft-free place and stir twice over the next 24 hours.

Watch for bubbles, expansion and a tangy or sour aroma after 24 hours of rest time. As soon as you notice these signs, add an additional tablespoon of white teff flour and water and whisk to combine. Cover and allow to rest for a few more hours. If bubbles have formed and the batter has expanded, go ahead and cook now. Otherwise, let the injera batter rest for an additional 12 hours, stirring once.

Once the mixture has doubled in size, heat an 8-inch crepe pan or skillet over medium heat. Coat with a teaspoon of vegetable oil, and pour about ½ cup of batter on the pan, making a large round flatbread shape from the outside of the pan to the inside. Cover the pan, reduce heat to medium-low, and cook by steam for 1 to 3 minutes. Remove the spongy injera from the pan with a spatula, transfer to a plate, and repeat until batter is gone.

Get the full Injera (Ethiopian Teff Bread) recipe here .

What to Serve With Injera

Injera bread pairing options abound, but we recommend mixing and matching from these Ethiopian-inspired recipes:

• Flavorful Ethiopian Stew Recipes
• Meatless Ethiopian Recipes
• Berbere Spiced Chicken Breasts
• Enjoy Global Flavors With Homemade Spice Blends from Around the World
• Essential Ingredients in the Ethiopian Pantry
• Our Best East African Recipe Ideas

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The Developmental Patterns of Injera Baking Stoves: Review on the Efficiency, and Energy Consumption in Ethiopia

2020, RESEARCH

Injera will continue to be the staple food for Ethiopians and Eritreans and some parts in east Africa in years to come. In order to efficiently bake Injera using various types of stoves, research and development work for Injera baking have been conducted so far and is critical. The use of energy sources is dominantly biomass is used for Injera baking followed by electricity yet. Electricity is mainly used in urban dwellers of the country which is limited one. Alternative energy sources such as solar thermal and biogas can be used for baking Injera alternatively. There are different types of Injera baking stoves design in Ethiopia using biomass energy such as open fire three stone stove, Mirt stove (includes improved one with high chimney, stand types), Burayou Injera baking stove Sodo, Awuramba, Tehesh indicating developmental patterns of stove based on the aim to reduce specific fuel consumption as well as efficiency by reducing energy losses during baking. Thus, it is determined that the average specific fuel consumption of three stone open fire was 929 g/kg of Injera, Mirt stove is 535g/kg of Injera, Gonziye is 617 g/kg of Injera, Awuramba is 573 g/kg of Injera while Sodo is 900 g/kg of Injera. The other Injera baking stoves were developed for baking Injera using solar thermal energy and biogas sources are designed to attain the average required surface temperature of Injera baking pan or Mitad. It is found that the average surface temperature of the concentric type solar thermal Injera baking stove is 148 oC, parabolic type solar Injera baking stove is 200 oC, electric stove is 225 oC using 3.75 KW electricity, WASS electrical is 220 oC consuming 1.4 KW electricity and biogas 210 oC. Further investigation needed to continue the developmental patterns of Injera baking system by improving the efficiency of the stove by reducing energy losses there has needed that the baking pan or Mitad to be improved.

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Mulugeta Tadesse , Pankaj Thakur

Household energy consumption regularly constitutes 90% of total energy use in most developing countries through the world. Woody biomass accounts 87% of the total annual biomass energy use globally. It has been estimated numerically that about 2.5 billion people in the developing countries solely depends on a biomass energy sources to meet their household energy demand. Most of rural Africa countries use traditional biomass energy sources for their household cooking and lighting. In 2017 statistics of international energy agency (IEA) data indicates that 45.3% of Africa energy consumption is from biomass and agricultural residues. The analyses of improved energy saving appliances were conducted and the constraints and opportunity related to household energy sources and use is also performed in the Wolaita zone. In sample survey, sample size determination was an important step in the process of statistical analysis and according to data obtained from Housing Development Section of the Wolaita zone, 110 households were used in the analysis of household energy consumption; which is sufficiently enough according to the sample size calculated above. This survey study shown that the traditional biomass energy sources were the principal energy source having the highest percentage share (96 %) of sampled households for Injera baking, 96 percent for Wot, 91 percent for tea and 93 percent for coffee. In fact, the contribution of modern energy source is minimal except slightly in the preparation of tea that is by using kerosene stove habitually called as Butagas makes sizeable use as shown in fig.2 above. Further analysis indicated that wood is used as the principal biomass energy source for Injera baking share 93 percent of households, followed by zero percent dry co w dung. A zero percent of the sample households also use electrical energy for Injera baking. It is further indicated that charcoal is also the principal energy source for wot cooking; tea preparation and coffee making and is share 72, 60 and 57 percent of households energy supply respectively. While the pattern for tea reveals that slight difference exist between the traditional biomass and modern energy sources especially with that of kerosene.

Dagnnet Amare

The rural population of Ethiopia entirely depends on biomass for everyday energy needs except for light. The traditional system, particularly during cooking, incurs among others huge energy loss that could have been used otherwise. The system has been recognized as having significant effect on natural resource degradation, harmful health hazards and negative economic consequences. As a result, the government has been encouraging the use of energy saving technologies. Mirt and Gonze stoves are the two most dominantly promoted technologies. Promotion and efficiency evaluations were conducted. The result of the evaluation confirmed that households that use Mirt and Gonze stoves can save more than 33% and 20% of wood biomass that could have been used if traditional open stove was used, respectively. The time efficiency, length of time the stoves gave energy to bake additional Injera for Mirt and Gonze was increased by 63% and 50%, respectively. Thus, Mirt and stoves are efficient than the traditional open stoves. Due to durability, farmers preferred Mirt stove over Gonze. Utilization of Mirt stove can save 15% of wood biomass over Gonze. Promotion of Mirt stove in rural Ethiopia is vital to enhance biomass energy efficiency.

Louis Verchot

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Energy supply in African countries is heavily dependent on traditional fuels like wood, agricultural residues, Animal waste, charcoal and coal which accounts above 80% (GACC, 2011). To the extreme, in some African countries solid fuel accounts above 95% total energy supply and largely burn with open three stone fire inefficiently which also results in negative effect on health and the environment (Karekezi et al., 2002). The Sub- Saharan African countries energy supply is heavily dominated by biomass which accounts above 90%, and the dominant cooking practice is three-stone open fire (Adkins et al., 2010; Schlag & Zuzarte, 2008). According to estimation by International Energy Agency (2010), the number of people relying on traditional biomass in sub-Saharan Africa is projected to increase from 585 in 2009 into 652 million in 2030 which accounts for 54 % of the world total as compared with 41 % in 2009. Like many other sub-Saharan countries, Ethiopia’s energy supply is heavily dependent on solid fuel that accounts above 95 % (NCCSPE, 2011). The heavily

Eyuel Abate

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Agriculture Journal IJOEAR , Sheleme Refera Jebesa

— The study was conducted in West shewa and East wollega zones; Oromia Regional State with objective of the study is to identify the major rural source of energy consumption in the study area and to identify constraint and potential of energy use in the study area. About 141Male and 39 Female households were interviewed by structured questionnaire and data were analyzed by descriptive statistics under SPSS software. The characteristic of rural Energy source utilization , the majority of respondent uses firewood about 91.1% and about 16.9% the respondent uses agricultural residue for the purpose of baking Enjera , Firewood is the first widely used energy source, about 57.2% of the respondent uses Firewood and about 22.8% of the respondent uses charcoal for the purpose of heating mostly. About 55% the respondents uses kerosene and the respondent's uses small size solar only about 20% for purpose of lighting. Electricity, battery cell, biogas was the lowest level energy sources of study area. In study area even if some rural HHs with access to electric service , they did not use for the purpose of Enjera baking as well as heating , only use for the purpose of lighting in study area. The main reasons for preference of biomass energy consumption in the study area is ease of access, cultural preference, cheap pricesandthe last reasons for choice biomass energy consumption is convenience when they used and no alternative source. Small HHs uses the available alternative energy technology like biogas, modern charcoal stove (leqach), Mirt stove, small size solar energy. Firewood and Agricultural residue were the potential energy sources in study area and unlike Agricultural research, lack of Research on Rural energy sources, lack of effective rural energy technology, socioeconomic problem to accept available rural energy sources, lack of information where and how alternatives rural energy technology were identified as constraints of rural energy sources in study area. To fill these knowledge gap AERC, should be planned to introduce new Rural Energy sources and Woreda water, mine and energy office should disseminate the available alternative technologies for ruralhouseholds.

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The present experimental study aims at exploring the effect of Jatropha biodiesel and diesel blends on a single cylinder four stroke diesel engine. Jatropha biodiesel has been obtained from Jatropha oil by Transesterification process. In this experimentation, the effects of parametersì.e. injection pressure, blend ratio, inlet water-flow rate and load are taken as adaptable for optimization. The Taguchi method of optimization has been used with four parameters and three levels of experiments. In the end, Taguchi experiment identifies that at JB50, injection pressure 150 bar, engine water flow 400 lph and engine load 11 kg is the optimum parameter setting for higher engine mechanical efficiency. This experiment was conducted using optimal combination of parameters has indicated that peak pressure decreased by about 1.66% and 3.06%, maximum fuel line pressure was reduced by 5.09% and 8.04% and the net heat release was lowered by 10.70% and 21.41% for JB50 and JB100 respectively.

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Globally 2.6 billion people, representing around 38% of the total population depend on solid biomass fuels to meet their basic energy needs for cooking. While rural communities are shifting to modern fuels such as LPG and electrical energy for cooking, the International Energy Agency estimates that in the absence of new policies, the number of people relying on solid biomass will increase to over 2.7 billion by the year 2030 because of population growth, which calls for higher adoption rate of improved biomass cookstoves. This article highlights the key barriers to adoption of improved cookstoves, sharing experiences from the field in South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa. More emphasis on technical design of stoves to achieve higher thermal efficiency and lack of sufficient attention to consumer perspectives such as user-friendliness, purchasing capacity, income variability of rural households as well as to local capacity development of market players and stove builders create the dissemination challenge. The article suggests that stronger stakeholder partnerships, knowledge sharing, and satisfaction of user requirements through appropriate designs and diversified financing options will be required for a rapid growth of supply and demand of improved cook stoves

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How to start an injera processing business?

With the improvement of people’s living standards, the production of Ethiopian injera is no longer limited to home production but has developed into mass production in food stores and factories. With the increasing demand for injera, investment in the injera processing business has gradually become profitable. So, how do we start an Ethiopia injera processing…

With the improvement of people’s living standards, the production of Ethiopian injera is no longer limited to home production but has developed into mass production in food stores and factories. With the increasing demand for injera, investment in the injera processing business has gradually become profitable. So, how do we start an Ethiopia injera processing business?

Why is it profitable to invest in the Ethiopian injera processing business?

Traditional injera making is made at home. Due to the complicated production process, it usually takes a long time to make this kind of food. Establish an injera business and use the commercial injera making machine to process injera, which is highly efficient and saves time and effort.

In addition, as the most popular staple food in East Africa, injera has large daily market demand, so the sales of the injera processing business will be very large, so as well as the profits.

How to start an injera processing plant in Ethiopia?

It is a good investment idea to start a small and medium-sized injera processing plant in Ethiopia and other East African countries. This is because the investment costs and risks of small injera business are lower, and profits are higher.

Starting an injera processing business usually requires a preliminary market survey, such as local market demand, whether to hire workers, how to buy injera processing equipment, and how to sell the manufactured injera.

The most important link is the purchase of commercial Ethiopian injera. Before purchasing this equipment, you must carefully choose a trusted injera maker machine manufacturer . Generally, this equipment is currently rarely available in East African countries, and most of them need to be imported from some Asian countries, such as China.

What is the process of making Ethiopia flatbread with the injera maker?

The method of using an injera maker machine to make injera is very simple, and the production process does not require too many workers to participate. We only need to add the fermented flour paste to the grouting barrel of the machine.

The dough in the grouting bucket will be injected quantitatively into the baking tray of the machine for baking. The temperature during baking can be set and adjusted, which is very convenient.

After injera baking is completed, it will automatically fall on the conveyor belt of the machine for transportation and will be quickly cooled by a cooling fan during the book transportation process. After cooling, the injera will be automatically sorted together by the sorting device, and workers only need to pack and sell the finished injera.

Taizy Ethiopian injera maker machine for sale

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• Weight: 260 kg
• Heating Barrel Size: 400*280 mm
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• Voltage: 380 V
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• Output: 1500-2000 pieces/h
• Dimension: 49008001350 mm
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• Heating Power: 32 KW
• Output: 3000-4000 pieces/h
• Dimension: 260011001600 mm
• Revolving Speed: 2-3 r/min
• Weight: 700 kg
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• Mold Size: 450 mm
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• Output: 5000-6000 pieces/h
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How to Make Injera

Last Updated: January 2, 2024

This article was reviewed by Ashley Crawford . Chef Ashley Crawford is a Private Chef and the Founder of A Taste of Chef Ash. Chef Ashley started in the culinary industry when she was 14. She specializes in Creole and Cajun cuisine but has experience in all culinary topics. She has been featured in ESPN and Sports Illustrated for her culinary work with athletes. This article has been viewed 63,615 times.

Injera is also known as Ethiopian flatbread. It is a native food of the country of Ethiopia. It uses teff flour and water as its base and has a spongy texture that is most enjoyable to eat. It's great on its own but it usually accompanies other Ethiopian dishes and is great for wiping the plate clean at the end of the meal.

Ingredients

• 1 cup teff flour
• 1 1/2 cups warm water (do not use hot water)
• Pinch of salt
• Fermentation starter (optional)
• Oil for frying

Community Q&A

• If using a fermentation starter, kefir is a good choice. Or, use 1 teaspoon of yogurt with a pinch of yeast. Thanks Helpful 4 Not Helpful 0
• Teff flour may be expensive. If you find this, you can try to make a small amount of teff go further, as follows: Mix 1/4 cup of teff flour with 3/4 cup or sorghum or wheat flour. If you can't find teff flour at all, use sorghum or wheat flour wholly; it won't be quite the same but it should still work. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 1
• Add honey to the batter just before pouring if you want a sweetened version. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 1

Things You'll Need

• Mixing bowl
• Wooden spoon
• Tea towel or other cover for bowl
• Heavy based frying pan or skillet
• Wooden spatula to lift injera off the pan
• Plate for stacking injera, or separate serving plates

You Might Also Like

• Adapted from: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Injera (and source of some tips)

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Tax Policy Becomes a Fault Line for Harris

The vice president is relying on tax proposals as a way to show she is different from both President Biden and her Republican rival, Donald Trump.

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By Andrew Duehren

Vice President Kamala Harris is turning to tax policy as a way to differentiate herself from both her Republican rival and her Democratic boss, an attempt to simultaneously project a more moderate image and stand by the soak-the-rich populism that animates much of her party.

During a campaign stop in New Hampshire on Wednesday, Ms. Harris for the first time explicitly said she would scale back one of President Biden’s policy proposals. Instead of taxing the investment earnings of Americans making more than $1 million a year at a 39.6 percent rate, as Mr. Biden has suggested, she called for 28 percent, though a surtax would apply on top of that.

Raising taxes on the rich has long been a central talking point for Mr. Biden and other Democrats, and while Ms. Harris has said she would increase taxes on the wealthy, the capital-gains adjustment was a message to investors and corporate executives: Ms. Harris is a different type of Democratic nominee.

Mr. Biden, who defeated progressives like Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont in the 2020 primary, still embraced some of their ideas for taxing the wealthy. The plans largely targeted the investment earnings of the very rich, including a so-called billionaire minimum tax that would require Americans worth at least $100 million to pay taxes on unrealized gains of their stocks, bonds and other assets.

Ms. Harris, however, did not have to win a crowded primary campaign in which progressive policy proposals proliferated. She was instead suddenly thrust to the top of the ticket in a general election that Democrats across the party’s ideological wings believe must be won, whatever policy rhetoric necessary. With that opening, some donors have pushed her to redefine the party’s tax platform and abandon Mr. Biden’s tax ideas, like the billionaire minimum tax, adopted when the progressive faction of the party enjoyed more sway.

“My plan will make our tax code more fair, while also prioritizing investments and innovation,” Ms. Harris said on Wednesday. “So let us be clear: Billionaires and big corporations must pay their fair share in tax.”

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