sociology research topics on gender

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100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers

Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include:

Sociology Psychology Gender studies Business studies

When pursuing higher education in these disciplines, learners can choose what to write about from a wide range of gender issues topics. However, the wide range of issues that learners can research and write about when it comes to gender makes choosing what to write about difficult. Here is a list of the top 100 gender and sexuality topics that students can consider.

Controversial Gender Research Topics

Do you like the idea of writing about something controversial? If yes, this category has some of the best gender topics to write about. They touch on issues like gender stereotypes and issues that are generally associated with members of a specific gender. Here are some of the best controversial gender topics that you can write about.

How human behavior is affected by gender misconceptions
How are straight marriages influenced by gay marriages
Explain the most common sex-role stereotypes
What are the effects of workplace stereotypes?
What issues affect modern feminism?
How sexuality affects sex-role stereotyping
How does the media break sex-role stereotypes
Explain the dual approach to equality between women and men
What are the most outdated sex-role stereotypes
Are men better than women?
How equal are men and women?
How do politics and sexuality relate?
How can films defy gender-based stereotypes
What are the advantages of being a woman?
What are the disadvantages of being a woman?
What are the advantages of being a man?
Discuss the disadvantages of being a woman
Should governments legalize prostitution?
Explain how sexual orientation came about?
Women communicate better than men
Women are the stronger sex
Explain how the world can be made better for women
Discuss the future gender norms
How important are sex roles in society
Discuss the transgender and feminism theory
How does feminism help in the creation of alternative women’s culture?
Gender stereotypes in education and science
Discuss racial variations when it comes to gender-related attitudes
Women are better leaders
Men can’t survive without women

This category also has some of the best gender debate topics. However, learners should be keen to pick topics they are interested in. This will enable them to ensure that they enjoy the research and writing process.

Interesting Gender Inequality Topics

Gender-based inequality is witnessed almost every day. As such, most learners are conversant with gender inequality research paper topics. However, it’s crucial to pick topics that are devoid of discrimination of members of a specific gender. Here are examples of gender inequality essay topics.

Sex discrimination aspects in schools
How to identify inequality between sexes
Sex discrimination causes
The inferior role played by women in relationships
Discuss sex differences in the education system
How can gender discrimination be identified in sports?
Can inequality issues between men and women be solved through education?
Why are professional opportunities for women in sports limited?
Why are there fewer women in leadership positions?
Discuss gender inequality when it comes to work-family balance
How does gender-based discrimination affect early childhood development?
Can sex discrimination be reduced by technology?
How can sex discrimination be identified in a marriage?
Explain where sex discrimination originates from
Discuss segregation and motherhood in labor markets
Explain classroom sex discrimination
How can inequality in American history be justified?
Discuss different types of sex discrimination in modern society
Discuss various factors that cause gender-based inequality
Discuss inequality in human resource practices and processes
Why is inequality between women and men so rampant in developing countries?
How can governments bridge gender gaps between women and men?
Work-home conflict is a sign of inequality between women and men
Explain why women are less wealthy than men
How can workplace gender-based inequality be addressed?

After choosing the gender inequality essay topics they like, students should research, brainstorm ideas, and come up with an outline before they start writing. This will ensure that their essays have engaging introductions and convincing bodies, as well as, strong conclusions.

Amazing Gender Roles Topics for Academic Papers and Essays

This category has ideas that slightly differ from gender equality topics. That’s because equality or lack of it can be measured by considering the representation of both genders in different roles. As such, some gender roles essay topics might not require tiresome and extensive research to write about. Nevertheless, learners should take time to gather the necessary information required to write about these topics. Here are some of the best gender topics for discussion when it comes to the roles played by men and women in society.

Describe gender identity
Describe how a women-dominated society would be
Compare gender development theories
How equally important are maternity and paternity levees for babies?
How can gender-parity be achieved when it comes to parenting?
Discuss the issues faced by modern feminism
How do men differ from women emotionally?
Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation
Is investing in the education of girls beneficial?
Explain the adoption of gender-role stereotyped behaviors
Discuss games and toys for boys and girls
Describe patriarchal attitudes in families
Explain patriarchal stereotypes in family relationships
What roles do women and men play in politics?
Discuss sex equity and academic careers
Compare military career opportunities for both genders
Discuss the perception of women in the military
Describe feminine traits
Discus gender-related issues faced by women in gaming
Men should play major roles in the welfare of their children
Explain how the aging population affects the economic welfare of women?
What has historically determined modern differences in gender roles?
Does society need stereotyped gender roles?
Does nature have a role to play in stereotyped gender roles?
The development and adoption of gender roles

The list of gender essay topics that are based on the roles of each sex can be quite extensive. Nevertheless, students should be keen to pick interesting gender topics in this category.

Important Gender Issues Topics for Research Paper

If you want to write a paper or essay on an important gender issue, this category has the best ideas for you. Students can write about different issues that affect individuals of different genders. For instance, this category can include gender wage gap essay topics. Wage variation is a common issue that affects women in different countries. Some of the best gender research paper topics in this category include:

Discuss gender mainstreaming purpose
Discuss the issue of gender-based violence
Why is the wage gap so common in most countries?
How can society promote equality in opportunities for women and men in sports?
Explain what it means to be transgender
Discuss the best practices of gender-neutral management
What is women’s empowerment?
Discuss how human trafficking affects women
How problematic is gender-blindness for women?
What does the glass ceiling mean in management?
Why are women at a higher risk of sexual exploitation and violence?
Why is STEM uptake low among women?
How does ideology affect the determination of relations between genders
How are sporting women fighting for equality?
Discuss sports, women, and media institutions
How can cities be made safer for girls and women?
Discuss international trends in the empowerment of women
How do women contribute to the world economy?
Explain how feminism on different social relations unites men and women as groups
Explain how gender diversity influence scientific discovery and innovation

This category has some of the most interesting women’s and gender studies paper topics. However, most of them require extensive research to come up with hard facts and figures that will make academic papers or essays more interesting.

Students in high schools and colleges can pick what to write about from a wide range of gender studies research topics. However, some gender studies topics might not be ideal for some learners based on the given essay prompt. Therefore, make sure that you have understood what the educator wants you to write about before you pick a topic. Our experts can help you choose a good thesis topic . Choosing the right gender studies topics enables learners to answer the asked questions properly. This impresses educators to award them top grades.

Exploring Fascinating Sociology Research Topics: A Comprehensive Guide

Are you a student with a keen interest in understanding society and its complex dynamics? Look no further than sociology research!

Sociology offers a captivating exploration of human social behavior, relationships, and institutions.

In this blog post, we will dive into the world of sociology research topics, guiding you through the elements of sociology research, where to find compelling topics, and providing a curated list of 40+ intriguing research ideas.

We will also highlight the significance of selecting the right topic and offer tips to ensure the success of your sociology research endeavors. So, let’s embark on this enlightening journey together!

What is Sociology?

Table of Contents

Sociology is the scientific study of society, human social interactions, and social institutions. It seeks to understand how individuals and groups shape and are shaped by social structures, norms, and values. By employing various research methods, sociologists examine topics such as social inequality, family dynamics, cultural practices, and political systems.

Elements of Sociology Research

To conduct effective sociology research, several key elements come into play:

a) Research Question

Formulating a clear and focused research question is essential. It serves as the foundation for your study and guides the entire research process.

b) Literature Review

A comprehensive literature review involves exploring scholarly work related to your research topic. This step helps you understand the current state of knowledge, identify research gaps, and refine your research question.

c) Research Design

Choosing the appropriate research design is crucial. Common methodologies in sociology research include surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and content analysis. Each method has its strengths and limitations. Therefore, select the one that aligns best with your research goals.

d) Data Collection

Collecting reliable and valid data is vital for meaningful research. Depending on your research design, data collection methods can include surveys, interviews, focus groups, or analyzing existing datasets. Ensure ethical considerations are adhered to throughout the process.

e) Data Analysis

Once you have gathered your data, the next step is to analyze it. Statistical software, qualitative coding techniques, and thematic analysis can assist in uncovering patterns, themes, and relationships within the data.

f) Findings and Conclusions

Interpreting your research findings and drawing meaningful conclusions is the culmination of your efforts. This stage allows you to contribute to the existing body of sociological knowledge and generate new insights.

Where to Find Sociology Research Topics:

Finding the right research topic can be a stimulating yet challenging task. Here are some avenues to explore:

a) Academic Journals and Publications

Sociology journals such as the American Sociological Review, Social Forces, and Sociology Compass often publish cutting-edge research and can inspire ideas for your own work.

b) Research Databases

Online databases like JSTOR, Google Scholar, and Social Science Research Network (SSRN) provide access to a vast collection of academic articles, dissertations, and conference papers, allowing you to explore a wide range of topics.

c) Sociological Associations and Conferences

Engaging with professional sociological associations and attending conferences can expose you to the latest research trends and provide networking opportunities with scholars in the field.

d) Sociological Research Centers and Institutes

Many universities and research institutions have dedicated centers or institutes that focus on sociological research. Exploring their websites can lead to interesting topics and ongoing projects.

40+ Sociology Research Topics For Students In 2023

Here are 40+ sociology research topics for students in 2023:

1. Gender Inequality In The Workplace

Explore the causes, consequences, and potential solutions for gender disparities in employment.

2. The Influence Of Cultural Norms On Marriage And Family Dynamics

Examine how cultural norms shape marriage and family structures, roles, and expectations.

3. The Sociology Of Crime And Deviance

Investigate theories and patterns of criminal behavior and social responses to deviant actions.

4. Social Mobility And Class Dynamics

Analyze the factors that contribute to social mobility and class stratification in society.

5. Racism And Discrimination

Examine the various forms of racism and discrimination prevalent in society and their impacts on individuals and communities.

6. Social Movements And Activism

Explore the dynamics of social movements, their goals, strategies, and impact on social change.

7. Immigration and social integration

Investigate the experiences of immigrants in the process of social integration and the challenges they face.

8. Education And Social Inequality

Examine the relationship between education and social inequality, including access, quality, and outcomes.

9. Health Disparities And Social Determinants Of Health

Explore the social factors that influence health outcomes and contribute to health disparities.

10. Aging And Society

Investigate the social, cultural, and economic aspects of aging and its impact on individuals and communities.

11. Environmental Sociology

Analyze the social dimensions of environmental issues, such as climate change, pollution, and sustainability.

12. Media Representation And Stereotypes

Examine how media shapes perceptions, reinforces stereotypes, and influences social attitudes.

13. Youth Culture And Identity

Explore the formation of youth cultures, subcultures, and the construction of youth identities.

14. Social Networks And Social Capital

Investigate the role of social networks and social capital in individual well-being and social integration.

15. Religion And Society

Analyze the interactions between religion, culture, and social institutions, and their impacts on society.

16. Globalization and its effects

Examine the social, cultural, and economic consequences of globalization on individuals and societies.

17. Social Inequality And Access To Healthcare

Investigate the relationship between social inequality and access to healthcare services.

18. Political Sociology

Analyze the dynamics of power, governance, and political systems in society.

19. Urbanization And Urban Sociology

Explore the social, economic, and environmental impacts of urbanization on communities and individuals.

20. Socialization And Identity Formation

Investigate how individuals acquire social norms, values, and identities through socialization processes.

21. Mental Health And Society

Examine the social factors influencing mental health, stigma, and access to mental health services.

22. Family Structures And Dynamics

Analyze changing family structures, roles, and functions in contemporary society.

23. Social Support Systems And Well-Being

Investigate the role of social support networks in promoting individual well-being and resilience.

24. Technology And Society

Examine the social implications of technological advancements, such as artificial intelligence, automation, and privacy concerns.

25. Social Movements and LGBTQ+Rights

Explore the role of social movements in advancing LGBTQ+ rights and fostering inclusivity.

26. Poverty And Social Welfare

Analyze the causes and consequences of poverty and the effectiveness of social welfare programs.

27. Social Construction Of Gender

Investigate how society constructs and perpetuates gender roles, norms, and expectations.

28. Disability And Society

Examine the social barriers faced by individuals with disabilities and the efforts towards inclusion and accessibility.

29. Social Capital And Community Development

Explore the role of social capital in community development, collective action, and resilience.

30. Media Effects On Body Image And Self-Esteem

Investigate the influence of media portrayals of beauty standards on body image dissatisfaction and self-esteem issues.

31. Political Polarization And Social Divisions

Analyze the factors contributing to political polarization and its impact on social cohesion and divisions.

32. Social Movements And Environmental Activism

Explore the role of social movements in promoting environmental awareness and activism.

32. Youth Unemployment And Its Consequences

Investigate the causes and consequences of youth unemployment on individuals and society.

33. Social Media And Political Engagement

Examine the influence of social media on political participation, activism, and engagement.

34. Cultural Assimilation And Multiculturalism

Analyze the challenges and benefits of cultural assimilation and multiculturalism in diverse societies.

35. Social Entrepreneurship And Social Innovation

Explore the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing social issues and driving positive change.

36. Body Modification And Identity

Investigate the social and cultural aspects of body modification practices, such as tattoos, piercings, and cosmetic surgeries.

37. Socialization And Gender Roles

Examine how socialization processes contribute to the formation and perpetuation of gender roles and expectations.

38. Religion And Social Cohesion

Analyze the role of religion in fostering social cohesion, community building, and moral values.

39. Intersectionality and social justice

Explore the concept of intersectionality and its implications for understanding and addressing social inequalities.

40. Social Stigma And Marginalized Communities

Investigate the impact of social stigma on marginalized communities and strategies for combating stigma.

41. Technology Addiction And Its Social Consequences

Examine the societal implications of technology addiction, such as excessive internet use and smartphone dependency.

42. Global Migration And Refugee Crises

Analyze the social, economic, and political impacts of global migration and refugee crises.

43. Social Capital And Economic Development

Investigate the role of social capital in promoting economic development and reducing poverty.

44. Education And Social Mobility

Explore the relationship between education access, quality, and its impact on social mobility.

45. Social Inequalities In Healthcare Access

Analyze the social factors contributing to disparities in healthcare access and outcomes.

46. Socialization And Media Influence On Youth

Investigate how media influences the socialization process and impacts the behavior and attitudes of young people.

47. Social Entrepreneurship And Sustainable Development

Explore how social entrepreneurship contributes to sustainable development and social innovation.

48. Social Movements And Racial Justice

Analyze the role of social movements in addressing systemic racism, promoting racial justice, and equality.

Remember, these topics are just starting points, and you can further refine them based on your interests and research goals. Good luck with your sociology research!

Significance of Choosing the Right Sociology Research Topics

Here are some significance of choosing the right sociology research topics :

1. Relevance and Contribution

Choosing a relevant research topic allows you to address important social issues and contribute to the existing body of sociological knowledge. It enables you to explore topics that have practical implications and potential for societal impact.

2. Personal Interest and Motivation

When you select a sociology research topic that aligns with your personal interests and passions, you are more likely to stay motivated and engaged throughout the research process. Your enthusiasm for the topic will fuel your commitment and drive to produce high-quality research.

3. Academic and Professional Growth

Engaging in research on the right sociology topics provides opportunities for academic and professional growth. It allows you to deepen your understanding of sociological theories, research methods, and analytical skills, enhancing your expertise in the field.

4. Student Engagement and Learning

For students, choosing interesting and relevant sociology research topics enhances the learning experience. It encourages active engagement with the subject matter, fosters critical thinking, and promotes a deeper understanding of social dynamics and complexities.

5. Contribution to Societal Debates

Sociology research has the potential to inform and shape public discourse on important social issues. By selecting the right topics, you can shed light on social inequalities, challenge dominant narratives, and contribute to informed discussions on topics such as racism, gender inequality, poverty, and more.

6. Practical Applications

Research topics that address practical societal challenges offer opportunities for real-world applications. The insights gained from your research can be used to develop interventions, policies, and programs aimed at addressing social issues and promoting positive social change.

7. Career Opportunities

Choosing the right sociology research topics can open doors to various career opportunities. Employers in fields such as social research, policy analysis, advocacy, and social services value individuals with a strong research background and expertise in relevant sociological issues.

8. Networking and Collaboration

Engaging in research on relevant sociology topics allows you to connect with other researchers, scholars, and professionals in the field. This networking can lead to collaborations, knowledge sharing, and exposure to different perspectives and research approaches.

9. Personal Growth and Empathy

Sociology research often involves studying and understanding diverse social groups and their experiences. This process fosters empathy, cultural sensitivity, and a broader worldview, contributing to personal growth and a deeper understanding of human societies.

10. Potential for Publication and Recognition

Selecting the right sociology research topics increases the likelihood of producing impactful and publishable research. It enhances your chances of disseminating your work through academic journals, conferences, and other platforms, gaining recognition within the scholarly community.

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Tips to Making Your Sociology Research Successful

When embarking on a sociology research journey, there are several tips to ensure your research is successful. Here are some key tips to consider:

1. Choose a Clear and Focused Research Question

Start by formulating a clear and focused research question. A well-defined research question will guide your entire research process and provide a framework for your study.

2.Conduct a Comprehensive Literature Review

Before diving into your research, conduct a thorough literature review. Familiarize yourself with existing scholarly work on the topic to understand the current state of knowledge, identify research gaps, and build upon previous research.

3. Select Appropriate Research Methods

Choose the research methods that align with your research question and objectives. Consider qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches based on the nature of your research topic and the data you need to collect.

4. Collect Reliable and Valid Data

Ensure your data collection methods are robust and reliable. Depending on your research design, employ techniques such as surveys, interviews, observations, or content analysis. Take measures to ensure the validity and reliability of your data.

5. Analyze Data Effectively

Once you have collected your data, analyze it using appropriate analytical techniques. Depending on your research methods, use statistical analysis software, qualitative coding, or thematic analysis to derive meaningful insights from your data.

6. Remain Ethical

Adhere to ethical guidelines throughout your research process. Obtain informed consent from participants, maintain confidentiality, and ensure the privacy and anonymity of individuals involved. Respect ethical considerations when working with sensitive topics or vulnerable populations.

7. Organize and Manage Your Research

Establish a system to organize and manage your research materials effectively. Keep track of references, data, and research notes to facilitate easy retrieval and citation.

8. Seek Guidance and Feedback

Seek guidance from your professors, mentors, or peers who have expertise in sociology or your specific research area. They can provide valuable insights, offer feedback on your work, and help you refine your research.

9. Stay Organized and Manage Time Wisely

Develop a research plan and timeline to ensure you allocate sufficient time for each research phase. Break your research project into smaller, manageable tasks, set deadlines, and stay organized to avoid unnecessary stress and last-minute rushes.

10. Revise, Edit, and Proofread

Take the time to revise, edit, and proofread your research work thoroughly. Pay attention to clarity, coherence, and logical flow in your writing. Ensure proper formatting, citation, and adherence to any specific guidelines or requirements.

11. Embrace Collaboration and Networking

Engage in discussions and collaborations with fellow researchers, scholars, and professionals in the field. Attend conferences, workshops, and seminars to share your research, gain feedback, and expand your network.

12. Stay Updated with Current Research

Continuously update your knowledge by reading current research in sociology. Stay informed about the latest theories, methodologies, and debates within the field. This will help you position your research within the broader context of sociological scholarship.

13. Communicate Your Research Findings Effectively

Lastly, communicate your research findings effectively through well-written research papers , presentations, or other appropriate mediums. Tailor your communication to your target audience, whether it be fellow researchers, policymakers, or the general public.

By following these tips, you can enhance the success of your sociology research, contribute to the field, and make a meaningful impact with your findings. Good luck with your research endeavors!

Conclusion

In conclusion, conducting successful sociology research requires careful planning, meticulous execution, and a passion for understanding and addressing social issues. By following the tips outlined above, you can maximize the impact and quality of your research.

A well-defined research question sets the direction for your research journey, guiding your efforts and ensuring a focused approach.

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What is gender equality?

Equality between the sexes is a huge part of basic human rights. It means that men and women have the same opportunities to fulfil their potential in all spheres of life.

Today, we still face inequality issues as there is a persistent gap in access to opportunities for men and women.

Women have less access to decision-making and higher education. They constantly face obstacles at the workplace and have greater safety risks. Maintaining equal rights for both sexes is critical for meeting a wide range of goals in global development.

Inequality between the sexes is an interesting area to study so high school, college, and university students are often assigned to write essays on gender topics.

In this article, we are going to discuss the key peculiarities of gender equality essay. Besides, we have created a list of the best essay topic ideas.

What is the specifics of gender equality essay?

Equality and inequality between the sexes are important historical and current social issues which impact the way students and their families live. They are common topics for college papers in psychology, sociology, gender studies.

When writing an essay on equality between the sexes, you need to argue for a strong point of view and support your argument with relevant evidence gathered from multiple sources.

But first, you’d need to choose a good topic which is neither too broad nor too narrow to research.

Research is crucial for the success of your essay because you should develop a strong argument based on an in-depth study of various scholarly sources.

Equality between sexes is a complex problem. You have to consider different aspects and controversial points of view on specific issues, show your ability to think critically, develop a strong thesis statement, and build a logical argument, which can make a great impression on your audience.

If you are looking for interesting gender equality essay topics, here you will find a great list of 100 topic ideas for writing essays and research papers on gender issues in contemporary society.

Should you find that some topics are too broad, feel free to narrow them down.

Powerful gender equality essay topics

Here are the top 25 hottest topics for your argumentative opinion paper on gender issues.

Whether you are searching for original creative ideas for gender equality in sports essay or need inspiration for gender equality in education essay, we’ve got you covered.

Use imagination and creativity to demonstrate your approach.

Analyze gender-based violence in different countries
Compare wage gap between the sexes in different countries
Explain the purpose of gender mainstreaming
Implications of sex differences in the human brain
How can we teach boys and girls that they have equal rights?
Discuss gender-neutral management practices
Promotion of equal opportunities for men and women in sports
What does it mean to be transgender?
Discuss the empowerment of women
Why is gender-blindness a problem for women?
Why are girls at greater risk of sexual violence and exploitation?
Women as victims of human trafficking
Analyze the glass ceiling in management
Impact of ideology in determining relations between sexes
Obstacles that prevent girls from getting quality education in African countries
Why are so few women in STEM?
Major challenges women face at the workplace
How do women in sport fight for equality?
Women, sports, and media institutions
Contribution of women in the development of the world economy
Role of gender diversity in innovation and scientific discovery
What can be done to make cities safer for women and girls?
International trends in women’s empowerment
Role of schools in teaching children behaviours considered appropriate for their sex
Feminism on social relations uniting women and men as groups

Gender roles essay topics

We can measure the equality of men and women by looking at how both sexes are represented in a range of different roles. You don’t have to do extensive and tiresome research to come up with gender roles essay topics, as we have already done it for you.

Have a look at this short list of top-notch topic ideas .

Are paternity and maternity leaves equally important for babies?
Imagine women-dominated society and describe it
Sex roles in contemporary western societies
Compare theories of gender development
Adoption of sex-role stereotyped behaviours
What steps should be taken to achieve gender-parity in parenting?
What is gender identity?
Emotional differences between men and women
Issues modern feminism faces
Sexual orientation and gender identity
Benefits of investing in girls’ education
Patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships
Toys and games of girls and boys
Roles of men and women in politics
Compare career opportunities for both sexes in the military
Women in the US military
Academic careers and sex equity
Should men play larger roles in childcare?
Impact of an ageing population on women’s economic welfare
Historical determinants of contemporary differences in sex roles
Gender-related issues in gaming
Culture and sex-role stereotypes in advertisements
What are feminine traits?
Sex role theory in sociology
Causes of sex differences and similarities in behaviour

Gender inequality research paper topics

Examples of inequality can be found in the everyday life of different women in many countries across the globe. Our gender inequality research paper topics are devoted to different issues that display discrimination of women throughout the world.

Choose any topic you like, research it, brainstorm ideas, and create a detailed gender inequality essay outline before you start working on your first draft.

Start off with making a debatable thesis, then write an engaging introduction, convincing main body, and strong conclusion for gender inequality essay .

Aspects of sex discrimination
Main indications of inequality between the sexes
Causes of sex discrimination
Inferior role of women in the relationships
Sex differences in education
Can education solve issues of inequality between the sexes?
Impact of discrimination on early childhood development
Why do women have limited professional opportunities in sports?
Gender discrimination in sports
Lack of women having leadership roles
Inequality between the sexes in work-family balance
Top factors that impact inequality at a workplace
What can governments do to close the gender gap at work?
Sex discrimination in human resource processes and practices
Gender inequality in work organizations
Factors causing inequality between men and women in developing countries
Work-home conflict as a symptom of inequality between men and women
Why are mothers less wealthy than women without children?
Forms of sex discrimination in a contemporary society
Sex discrimination in the classroom
Justification of inequality in American history
Origins of sex discrimination
Motherhood and segregation in labour markets
Sex discrimination in marriage
Can technology reduce sex discrimination?

Most controversial gender topics

Need a good controversial topic for gender stereotypes essay? Here are some popular debatable topics concerning various gender problems people face nowadays.

They are discussed in scientific studies, newspaper articles, and social media posts. If you choose any of them, you will need to perform in-depth research to prepare an impressive piece of writing.

How do gender misconceptions impact behaviour?
Most common outdated sex-role stereotypes
How does gay marriage influence straight marriage?
Explain the role of sexuality in sex-role stereotyping
Role of media in breaking sex-role stereotypes
Discuss the dual approach to equality between men and women
Are women better than men or are they equal?
Sex-role stereotypes at a workplace
Racial variations in gender-related attitudes
Role of feminism in creating the alternative culture for women
Feminism and transgender theory
Gender stereotypes in science and education
Are sex roles important for society?
Future of gender norms
How can we make a better world for women?
Are men the weaker sex?
Beauty pageants and women’s empowerment
Are women better communicators?
What are the origins of sexual orientation?
Should prostitution be legal?
Pros and cons of being a feminist
Advantages and disadvantages of being a woman
Can movies defy gender stereotypes?
Sexuality and politics

Feel free to use these powerful topic ideas for writing a good college-level gender equality essay or as a starting point for your study.

No time to do decent research and write your top-notch paper? No big deal! Choose any topic from our list and let a pro write the essay for you!

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Sociology Research Topics

Easy Sociology Research Topics for Your Next Project

13 min read

Published on: May 12, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

Sociology Research Topics for Students

As previously discussed, sociological studies cover different areas of life. It ranges from simple social psychology topics to social science topics. Here we have mentioned unique ideas for students to write their sociology papers.

Sociology Research Topics for High School Students

Discuss the reasons for overpopulation.
Discuss the solution to stop terrorism in the United States.
Why should the drinking age be lowered?
What are the limitations to free speech?
Why should gun control laws be enacted worldwide?
Discuss the role of feminism in current American politics.
How can we deal with the violence against women?
Compare the social views of Plato and Aristotle.
How should communities take better care of their elderly?
What benefits do older adults get from the interaction with children?

Sociology Research Topics for College Students

What are the major reasons behind school violence?
What causes social isolation?
How to stop bullying at school and college?
Should children be allowed to transition?
Discuss the effects of social media on college students.
Discuss the role of countries, languages, and nationalities at schools.
How can the harassment and bullying on social media be controlled?
Discuss the reasons behind childhood obesity.
How are children and teenagers affected by the mass media?
How should our society deal with addicts?

Sociology Research Topics on Education

Should students be allowed to take any subject they want in colleges?
Do school uniforms decrease teasing and bullying?
Why should teachers make more money?
Should public education be handled through private enterprises?
Should religious education be given priority over academic knowledge?
What are ethical values that should be considered in education?
What would a perfect educational setting look like?
What is the best teacher/student ratio for enhanced learning?
What are the pros and cons of standardized testing?
Discuss the strategies for dealing with difficult students.

Medical Sociology Research Topics

Discuss the inequalities in health care and social classes.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of plastic surgery?
Bodybuilding: Is it safe for health?
Discuss different beauty standards and their impact on health.
What are the effects of medicines on the human body?
How are mental health and physical health related?
Discuss the social effects of mental disorders.
How can we achieve health equity?
How can happiness cure diseases?
Discuss how different treatment methods are evolved?

Environmental Sociology Research Topics

What is meant by ecological culture?
Discuss the concept of ecological education.
Discuss the overview of global ecological movements.
What is the impact of the environment on society?
How can humans establish rational relationships with nature?
Discuss eco-feminism and its impact on social norms.
What are the negative effects of industrial wastes on the environment?
How is climate change related to global warming?
How does an ecosystem work?
What is the process of recycling?

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Drugs and Crime Topics for Sociology Research Papers

The relationship between drug addiction and criminal behavior
The impact of drug laws and policies on rates of drug-related crime
The role of race and ethnicity in drug-related arrests and convictions
The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing criminal recidivism
The connection between drug trafficking and organized crime
The use of drug courts as an alternative to traditional criminal justice approaches
The impact of the opioid epidemic on crime rates and public health
The relationship between drug use and domestic violence
The impact of legalization of marijuana on crime rates and drug-related offenses
The role of social and economic factors in drug use and drug-related crime.

Culture and Society Sociology Research Topics

The ethics and impact of cultural appropriation in the fashion industry.
How social media shapes and influences cultural norms and values
The role of popular culture in shaping social attitudes and behaviors
The effects of immigration on cultural integration and adaptation
The relationship between culture and power, particularly in terms of social hierarchies
The intersection of race, ethnicity, and culture in shaping social experiences and inequalities
The role of religion in shaping cultural practices and social structures
How language shapes cultural identity and social relationships
The effects of cultural pluralism on social cohesion and conflict
The impact of cultural hegemony on marginalized and minority communities.

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Sociology Research Topics on Gender

How are young women presented in social media?
Compare the wage gap between the genders in different states.
Why should we promote equal opportunities for men and women?
What does it mean to be transgender?
Discuss the empowerment of women in sports
What can be done to make the environment safer for women?
Why are girls at greater risk of sexual violence?
How can we teach men and women about their equal rights?
Discuss the challenges that women face at the workplace.
Discuss the contribution of women in the development of the world economy.

Sociology Research Topics on Family

How should a family be defined?
Discuss the negative effect on children adopted by a family of different ethnicity.
Why should parents take a parenting class before having children?
How can a familyâs behavior affect a childâs education?
Discuss the effects of divorce on children.
How long should two people date before they marry?
What are the positive and negative consequences of single parenting?
Discuss family policies in western societies.
What are the benefits of arranged marriage?
Discuss the benefits of being married.

Relationship-Related Sociology Research Topics

The impact of social media on modern dating practices
The influence of cultural norms on the formation of intimate relationships
The effect of parenting styles on the development of romantic relationships
The role of attachment style in relationship satisfaction and longevity
The impact of gender roles on romantic relationships
The influence of religion on relationship formation and success
The effect of socioeconomic status on relationship dynamics
The role of power and control in abusive relationships
The impact of technology on long-distance relationships.
The effects of helicopter parenting on child development and well-being

Sociology Research Topics on Religion

How can we differentiate religion and spiritualism?
Discuss the role of religion in helping or harming our country.
Discuss the relationship between a class and religion.
Why do some young people believe in magic?
How does religion influences terrorism?
How have religious leaders shaped a countryâs policy?
Why must students at religious schools be forced to take standardized tests?
What is the relationship between class and religion?
How religion affects everyday life?
Why is religion important to nationalism?

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Sociology Research Topics on Race

How are race and class related?
Discuss racial segregation in cities.
What is the difference between ethnic culture and race?
How ethnicity affects class?
Discuss racial stereotypes and their effects.
How can racism in workplaces be controlled?
Are ethnicity and nationality the same thing?
Do race, nationality, and ethnicity affect self-esteem?
How did white people become white?
Discuss the sociology of race and ethnic relations.

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Urban Sociology Research Topics

Discuss the urban sociology crises.
How can we resolve urban inequalities?
Discuss the concept of urbanization in the United States.
What are the urban political strategies in times of crisis?
Discuss the important urban issues in the developing world.
Discuss the politics of informal urbanization.
Discuss changes within the urban environment.
Discuss class, gender, and age as a factor of inequality.
How are urban sustainability and global environmental crisis related?
What are the social responses to urban social movements?

Rural Sociology Research Topics

Discuss rural sociology in Brazil and its effects on institutional growth.
Explain the social impacts of implementing the rural revival program.
What is the end of rural society and the future of rural sociology?
Discuss migration dynamics in the development of rural South Africa.
Discuss the reasons behind the population growth in rural America.
What is shaping rural areas in Europe?
What is the effect of community banks on rural development?
What is the impact of commercial banks on rural development?
What is the role of financial institutions in agricultural development?
Discuss the role of small-scale industries in rural development.

Easy Sociology Research Topics

What is the relationship between family size and income level?
Discuss the impact of religion on people's daily lives.
How does poverty affect mental health?
Discuss the effects of media on body image.
What are the differences between urban and rural life in terms of culture?
What is the role of social networks in influencing consumer behavior?
What is the impact of globalization on developing countries?
How does culture affect decision-making processes?
Discuss the effects of immigration on a country's economy.
Discuss the role of education in promoting social change.

Sociology Research Topics on Health and Awareness

What is the impact of lifestyle choices on health?
Discuss how cultural factors shape people's views on health and wellness.
What is the role of nutrition in promoting healthy habits?
How does access to healthcare affect people's well-being?
Discuss the link between poverty and poor health outcomes.
How do gender roles influence people's health decisions?
What is the role of government in promoting public health awareness?
Discuss how media influences people's perceptions of health and wellness.
How do social networks affect peopleâs attitudes toward healthcare?
Discuss the effects of environmental pollution on human health.

Sociology Research Topics on Mental Health

Discuss the impact of mental health stigma on people's lives.
What is the relationship between mental health and physical well-being?
How does stress affect people's mental health?
Discuss the effects of trauma on mental health.
What are the challenges faced by those with mental illnesses in accessing healthcare services?
How do substance abuse and mental health interrelate?
What is the relationship between poverty and mental illness?
Discuss the impact of media on people's perceptions of mental health.
How do gender roles influence people's attitudes toward mental health?
Discuss how social support networks can help those with mental illnesses.

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Sociology Research Topics on Social Media

What is the impact of social media on peopleâs communication habits?
Discuss how online networks have changed the way we interact with one another.
How does social media influence consumer behavior?
Discuss the effects of digital divides on access to information.
What is the relationship between political participation and social media use?
What is the role of social media in promoting civic engagement?
Discuss the influence of online networks on forming relationships.
How does online communication impact offline interaction?
What are the effects of cyberbullying on young peopleâs mental health?
Discuss how algorithms shape people's experiences with social media.

Political Sociology Research Topics

Discuss the impact of political ideologies on public opinion.
What is the role of government in promoting social justice?
How do power dynamics shape international relations?
What are the effects of civil wars on peopleâs lives?
Discuss gender roles in politics and their implications.
What are the impacts of economic inequality on political participation?
Discuss the role of media in forming public opinion.
How does corruption shape decision-making processes?
What are the effects of authoritarianism on civil liberties?
Discuss how technology has changed the way people interact with government institutions.

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451 Sociology Research Topics & Ideas

Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
Icon Page 4126 words
Icon Clock 19 min read

Sociology research topics offer a broad spectrum of investigation, focusing on human behavior and social structures. They can explore the impacts of social media on societal norms and relationships, assessing its role in shaping perceptions and interactions. Some themes can cover cultural diversity and race relations, evaluate the societal implications of racial disparities, or study gender roles and how they evolve in different societies. They can also scrutinize family dynamics, examining the changes in traditional family structures in today’s context. Alternatively, one might study education systems, comparing how different methodologies contribute to social mobility. Finally, investigating social movements and revolutions provides insight into collective human behaviors and their impacts on societal change. As a result, sociology research topics illuminate the complex interplay between individuals, society, and culture, providing a deeper understanding of human interaction.

Best Sociology Research Topics

Understanding the Impact of Social Media on Teenage Self-Image
Exploring the Sociology of Love and Romance in Different Cultures
Digital Divide: A Sociological Perspective
Ethnicity and Class: A Comparative Study in Modern Urban Societies
Analyzing Modern-Day Cults: An Examination of Influence and Control
Poverty’s Influence on Child Education: A Sociological Analysis
Effects of Workplace Culture on Individual Mental Health
Religious Beliefs and Their Influence on Societal Norms
Single-Parenting: A Study on Societal Perception and Challenges
Crime Rates and Socioeconomic Status: Unveiling the Connection
Obesity’s Social and Economic Impact on Society
Body Modification Practices: A Global Sociological Study
Gender Roles in Advertising: The Effect on Consumer Behavior
Immigration: A Sociological Exploration of Integration and Assimilation
Deconstructing Homelessness: The Social and Economic Factors
Social Implications of Euthanasia Policies Worldwide
Societal Perspectives on Cybersecurity and Privacy
Racial Profiling in Law Enforcement: A Sociological Investigation
Feminism’s Evolution and Its Impact on Society
Political Polarization and Its Societal Consequences
Cyberbullying: Examining Its Prevalence and Societal Impact

Easy Sociology Research Topics

Social Norms and Their Impact on Environmental Conservation
The Influence of Pop Culture on Adolescents’ Identity Formation
Veganism as a Social Movement: A Sociological Perspective
Ageism: Understanding Its Societal Impacts and Remedies
Representation of Mental Illness in Media: A Sociological Study
Globalization and Its Effect on Indigenous Cultures
Civil Disobedience in Modern Society: Causes and Impacts
Human Trafficking: A Comprehensive Sociological Analysis
Unemployment and Its Societal Consequences
Media Influence on Body Image: A Sociological Perspective
The Role of Education in Shaping Society
Internet Memes and Their Sociocultural Significance
Patriarchy and Its Impact on Gender Equality
LGBTQ+ Rights Movement: A Sociological Examination
Marijuana Legalization and Its Societal Impacts
Impacts of Parental Incarceration on Child Development
The Sociological Implications of Space Colonization
Gun Control Policies: An Analysis of Their Societal Effects
Health Disparities: A Sociological Analysis
Rural vs. Urban Living: A Sociological Comparison

Interesting Sociology Research Topics

Sports Stereotypes and Their Impact on Youth
Home Schooling and Its Social Implications
The Effect of Celebrity Culture on Teen Behavior
Evolution of Language and its Sociological Significance
Modern Slavery: Uncovering Its Hidden Societal Presence
The Impact of Divorce on Children’s Societal Integration
Examination of Religious Extremism and its Societal Consequences
Roles of Social Movements in Advancing Civil Rights
Understanding the Societal Impact of Terrorism
The Social Implications of Genetic Engineering and Biohacking
Online Dating Culture: Societal Perceptions and Realities
Impacts of Globalization on the Middle Class
The Sociological Implications of the Anti-Vax Movement
The Effect of Mass Incarceration on Communities
Social Consequences of Climate Refugees
Influence of Mass Media on Political Opinions
Gender Bias in the Workplace: A Sociological Analysis
Darknet Markets and Their Societal Implications
Societal Perception and Treatment of the Elderly
The Sociocultural Impacts of the #MeToo Movement
Societal Implications of Autonomous Vehicles
The Influence of Parenting Styles on Childhood Development

Sociology Research Paper Topics for High School

Influence of Social Media on Adolescent Behavior and Identity Formation
The Impact of School Uniforms on Student Self-Expression and Performance
Cyberbullying: Causes, Effects, and Possible Solutions
Understanding the Sociological Perspectives on Poverty Reduction Strategies
How Peer Pressure Shapes Adolescent Decisions and Behaviors
Implications of Divorce on Children’s Social and Emotional Development
Parental Influence vs. Peer Influence: A Comparative Study
Immigration’s Effect on Social Dynamics in High School Settings
Examining the Impact of Substance Abuse on Family Structures
Roles of Sports in Promoting Social Inclusion and Cohesion
Investigating the Social Consequences of Climate Change on Local Communities
Cultural Diversity in Schools: Benefits and Challenges
The Influence of Popular Culture on Youth Perceptions and Values
Analyzing the Sociological Implications of Food Insecurity in Urban Areas
Gender Bias in School Education: Implications and Mitigation Measures
Understanding the Correlation Between Socioeconomic Status and Academic Success
Mental Health Stigma: Societal Perceptions and Implications for Adolescents
Roles of Technology in Modern Social Interactions: A Sociological Perspective
Ethnic Stereotypes and Their Impact on Interpersonal Relationships

Sociology Research Paper Topics for College Students

Analyzing Gender Stereotypes in Contemporary Advertising
Impacts of Technology on Human Interactions
Urbanization and Its Effects on Social Relationships
Influence of Parenting Styles on Childhood Development
Cyberbullying: Its Psychological Impact on Adolescents
Religion and Its Role in Shaping Cultural Identity
Disparity in Educational Opportunities Across Socioeconomic Classes
Ethical Implications of Genetic Testing and Social Relationships
Socioeconomic Factors Contributing to Substance Abuse
Effects of Social Media on Body Image Perceptions
Impacts of Mass Incarceration on Minority Communities
Globalization and Its Effect on Cultural Diversity
Consumerism Culture: Its Impact on the Environment
Exploring Social Implications of Climate Change
Comparative Analysis of LGBT Rights Across Different Societies
Violent Video Games and Their Impact on Adolescent Behavior
Roles of Sports in Developing Community Solidarity
Environmental Justice: Analyzing Socioeconomic Disparities in Pollution Exposure
Understanding Mental Health Stigma in Different Cultures
Influence of Pop Culture on Youth Identity Formation
Marginalization and Resistance: A Study of Indigenous Peoples
Racial Profiling: Its Impact on Crime Rates and Policing

Sociology Research Paper Topics for University

Food Deserts: Exploring the Intersection of Poverty and Nutrition
Roles of Music in Social Movements
Health Disparities: Impact of Race and Socioeconomic Status
Patriarchy and Its Manifestations in Different Societies
Exploring Societal Attitudes Toward Aging Populations
The Sharing Economy: Social Consequences of Uber, Airbnb, and Beyond
Consumer Behavior and Its Impact on the Fast Fashion Industry
Immigration Policies: Their Effects on Family Structures
Analyzing Suicide Rates in High-Stress Professions
Social Influences on Vaccination Decisions: A Global Perspective
Homeschooling: Its Social and Psychological Implications
Impacts of Divorce on Child’s Emotional Development
Roles of Social Networking Sites in Political Campaigns
Teenage Pregnancy: Societal and Personal Factors
Examining Ageism and Its Impact on Employment Opportunities
Digital Divide: The Inequality in Access to Information Technology
Influence of Rap Music on Youth Culture and Identity
Impacts of School Uniforms on Student Self-Perception and Performance
Social Isolation in the Era of Digital Connectivity
Body Modifications and Their Sociocultural Significance
Exploration of Veganism as a Social Movement

Family Sociology Research Topics

Influence of Parental Involvement on a Child’s Academic Success
Implications of Divorce on Adolescent Mental Health
The Role of Family Structure in Shaping Individual Identities
Examining the Effects of Adoption on the Family Dynamic
Long-Term Impacts of Domestic Violence on Family Members
Understanding Single Parenthood: Societal Views and Challenges
Kinship and Its Significance in Contemporary Societies
Dysfunctional Families: Causes, Consequences, and Possible Solutions
Comparing Nuclear and Extended Families: Social and Economic Aspects
Power Relations Within Modern Families: A Gender Perspective
Investigating the Effects of Alcoholism on Family Relationships
Role-Playing in Families: Expectations and Reality
Impact of Societal Norms on Family Formation and Structure
Grandparenting Styles and Their Influence on Grandchildren’s Development
Societal Perceptions of Homosexual Families: A Comparative Study
The Role of Financial Stress in Family Conflicts
Importance of Communication in Strengthening Family Ties
Sibling Rivalry: Causes, Impacts, and Strategies for Resolution
Evaluating the Influence of Military Deployment on Family Dynamics
Dual-Career Families: Balancing Work and Family Responsibilities

Sociology Research Topics About Nationality and Race

Exploring Racial Identity Development in Multicultural Societies
The Role of Media in Shaping Racial Stereotypes
Cultural Assimilation vs. Cultural Preservation: An Examination
Understanding the Impact of Nationalism on Racial Tensions
Unpacking Systemic Racism in Educational Institutions
Immigrant Adaptation: The Influence of Race and Ethnicity
Race Relations: The History and Evolution in America
Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender: A Comprehensive Study
Sociological Implications of the Concept of ‘Model Minority’
Influences of Racial Identity on Career Choices and Professional Development
Nationality, Race, and Access to Quality Healthcare
Ethnic Enclaves and Their Impact on Socioeconomic Outcomes
Postcolonialism and Its Influence on Racial Perceptions
Biases in AI Technology: What Are Race and Nationality Factors?
Assumptions of Racial Privilege: Effects on Social Dynamics
The Intersectionality of Nationality, Race, and Climate Change Injustice
Influence of Nationality and Race on Political Affiliation
Critical Examination of Racial Microaggressions in the Workplace
The Role of Language in Shaping Racial and National Identity

Sociology Research Topics on Human Rights

Impacts of Digital Technology on Human Rights Activism
Historical Analysis of Women’s Rights Movements Across the Globe
Roles of the United Nations in Enforcing International Human Rights Standards
The Intersection of Human Rights and Racial Profiling in Law Enforcement
Socioeconomic Status and Its Influence on Access to Basic Human Rights
How Does Education Influence Awareness and Understanding of Human Rights?
Societal Implications of Immigration Policies on Human Rights
LGBTQ+ Movements and the Fight for Equal Human Rights
The Relationship Between Globalization and Human Rights Violations
Ethical Dilemmas in Human Rights Legislation Across Different Cultures
The Influence of Political Ideology on Human Rights Policies
Child Labor Practices and Their Human Rights Implications
Disability Rights and Societal Attitudes: A Global Perspective
Evolution of Workers’ Rights in the Industrial Revolution
Environmental Justice and Human Rights Implications
Influence of Religion on Human Rights Perceptions and Conflicts
Cybersecurity Laws and Their Impact on Digital Human Rights
Human Trafficking: A Global Human Rights Crisis
Healthcare Access as a Basic Human Right: A Sociological Perspective
The Correlation Between Mental Health Stigmas and Human Rights Violations

Sociology Research Topics on Social Media

Influential Factors in Social Media Activism: A Case Study Approach
Social Media’s Impact on Body Image: An Intergenerational Analysis
Online Privacy Perception: Variances Across Different Social Media Platforms
Dissecting Cyberbullying: Causes and Consequences in the Social Media Age
The Psychological Consequences of Social Media Addiction
Analyzing the Role of Social Media in Political Campaigns
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Representation in Social Media
Instagram’s Influence on Teenagers’ Self-Esteem and Self-Image
The Power of Hashtags: Social Movements and Digital Activism
Building Relationships in the Virtual Sphere: The Impact of Social Media on Friendship
Social Media as a Catalyst for Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Generation Z and Social Media: A Cultural Shift
Exploring the Evolution of Feminism through Social Media Discourse
Social Media and Its Impact on Language Evolution
Virtual Vigilantism: Understanding the Role of Social Media in Justice
The Dynamic of Rumors and Misinformation Spread on Social Media Platforms
Twitter’s Impact on Journalism: The Shift Toward Citizen Reporting
The Emergence of Influencer Culture: An Analysis of Its Sociological Implications
Profiling Cybercrime and Scams: The Dark Side of Social Media
Mental Health Discussions in Online Communities: A Look Into Reddit and Beyond
Digital Divide: Social Inequalities Exposed by Social Media Usage

Sociology Research Topics About Interpersonal Communication

Evolution of Interpersonal Communication: A Historical Analysis
Influence of Cultural Differences on Interpersonal Communication
Emotional Intelligence and Its Impact on Effective Interpersonal Communication
Nonverbal Cues: Their Importance in Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal Communication in Conflict Resolution: Strategies and Techniques
Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication: An Analytical Perspective
The Psychology of Interpersonal Communication: Understanding Human Interaction
Deception Detection in Interpersonal Communication: Truth and Lies
Impacts of Gender on Interpersonal Communication Styles
Interplay of Power Dynamics in Interpersonal Communication
Comparative Analysis of Interpersonal Communication in Different Social Groups
Role-Playing in Interpersonal Communication: How Does It Influence Perception?
Technological Innovations and Their Effect on Interpersonal Communication
Analysis of Miscommunication in Interpersonal Relationships
Self-Disclosure and Trust Building in Interpersonal Communication
Cross-Cultural Interpersonal Communication: Overcoming Challenges
Interpersonal Communication Skills in Leadership: A Critical Analysis
Ethical Considerations in Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal Communication in Romantic Relationships: A Complex Dance
Humor in Interpersonal Communication: Its Role and Influence

Sociology Research Topics on Stereotypes

Stereotype Formation: Unveiling the Process
Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: An Intricate Relationship
Impact of Media Portrayals on Stereotype Development
Analyzing Stereotypes in Adolescence: A Formative Stage
Stereotypes in Literature: Reflections of Society
Bias Emergence: The Role of Stereotypes in Decision-Making
Unpacking Stereotypes: Ethnicity and Race
Gender Stereotypes: An Analysis of Their Origins and Impacts
Age-Related Stereotypes: A Detailed Study
Occupational Stereotypes: Implications and Consequences
Stereotype Threat: Exploring Its Effects on Performance
The Effect of Stereotypes on Mental Health
Religion-Based Stereotypes: Unraveling Perceptions and Prejudices
Challenging Stereotypes: A Study on Counter-Stereotypical Information
The Intersectionality of Stereotypes: Race, Gender, and Class
Unconscious Bias: The Silent Force Behind Stereotypes
The Evolution of Stereotypes: A Historical Perspective
Stereotypes and Body Image: The Media’s Influence
Socioeconomic Stereotypes: A Comprehensive Analysis
LGBT Stereotypes: Understanding Its Impact on Society
The Role of Education in Stereotype Mitigation

Sociology Research Topics on Gender Studies

Intersectionality of Gender, Class, and Race in Workplace Environments
Historical Analysis of Gender Roles in Indigenous Cultures
Biological vs. Sociological Perspectives on Gender Formation
Impacts of Gender Representation in Children’s Literature
Navigating the Challenges of Gender Inequality in Sports
Transgender Rights and Healthcare Accessibility: A Sociological Perspective
Gender Stereotypes in Advertising and Their Social Implications
Exploration of Gender Norms in Non-Western Societies
Analysis of Women’s Movements and Feminist Thought Across Cultures
Roles of Education in Breaking Gender Stereotypes
Gender Dynamics in Political Leadership and Governance
Male Privilege: Unraveling Its Social and Economic Implications
Examination of Queer Theory in Contemporary Gender Studies
Influence of Social Media on Gender Identity and Expression
Impacts of Gender Wage Gap on Economic Development
Deconstructing Toxic Masculinity: Societal Causes and Effects
Intersection of Gender and Religion: Effects on Societal Norms
Same-Sex Parenting and Its Effect on Child Development
Comparative Study of Gender Policies in Different Countries
Power Imbalances in Intimate Relationships: A Gendered Analysis

Sociology Research Topics on Youth Culture

The Impact of Digital Media on Youth Subcultures
Shaping Identities: The Role of Music Genres in Youth Culture
Fashion Trends and Their Influence on Teen Self-Expression
Exploring Mental Health Stigmas within Modern Youth Communities
Interplay Between Youth Culture and Gender Identity Development
Substance Use and Its Societal Interpretation Within Young Populations
Cross-cultural Comparisons of Youth Subcultures: A Global Perspective
Sports Fandom: A Study of Its Role in Youth Identity Formation
Parental Influences on Adolescents: A Sociological Exploration
Effects of Socioeconomic Factors on the Shaping of Youth Culture
Dynamics of Teenage Rebellion: Sociological Causes and Implications
Internet Meme Culture and Its Impact on the Language of Youth
The Interrelationship Between Youth Culture and Body Image Perceptions
Impacts of Reality Television on the Values of Adolescents
Examining the Influence of Video Games on Youth Social Interactions
The Role of Young Adult Literature in Shaping Youth Worldviews
Urban Street Art: An Expression of Youth Dissatisfaction or Creativity?
School Environments and Their Impact on Youth Social Hierarchies
Youth Involvement in Environmental Activism: A Sociocultural Analysis
The Link Between Food Culture and Youth Lifestyle Choices
Youth Migration Trends: Sociological Effects on Source and Host Cultures

Sociology Research Topics About Youth Issues

The Role of School Systems in Addressing Youth Bullying
Exploring the Impact of Video Games on Teenage Behavior
Intersectionality of Race, Class, and Youth Crime Rates
Youth Engagement in Political and Social Movements
Implications of Economic Inequality on Education Access for Adolescents
LGBTQ+ Youth: Challenges and Social Support Networks
Exposure to Violence: Psychological Effects on Urban Youth
Peer Pressure Among Adolescents: A Sociological Perspective
The Cultural Divide: Understanding Generation Z’s Perspectives
Body Modifications Among Youth: Expression or Rebellion?
Role Models in Today’s Digital Era: The Impact on Youth
Adolescents and Substance Abuse: Societal Causes and Solutions
Family Structures: The Impact on Adolescent Mental Health
Influence of Parental Occupation on Youth Career Choices
Online Safety: How Do Cyber Threats Affect Adolescents?
Music Genres and Their Influence on Youth Subcultures
Globalization’s Effect on Youth Identity Formation
Impacts of Sports Participation on Adolescent Development
Mental Health Stigma Among Adolescents: A Social Dilemma
Popularity of Reality TV: Understanding Its Impact on Teenage Aspirations

Educational Sociology Research Topics

Exploring the Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement
The Role of School Environment in Shaping Students’ Social Behavior
Bullying and Its Effects on Academic Performance
Standardized Testing: A Critical Sociological Perspective
Influence of Gender Stereotypes on Career Choices in Higher Education
Ethnic Diversity in Schools and Its Impact on Student Interactions
Education Policies: Their Role in Addressing Social Inequality
Comparative Analysis of Rural vs. Urban Education Systems
Relationship Between Family Structures and Students’ Academic Success
School Curriculum: A Tool for Social Conditioning or Empowerment?
Influence of Technology Integration on the Social Dynamics of Classroom
Impacts of Bilingual Education on Cultural Integration
Challenges of Special Needs Education From a Sociological Perspective
Students’ Mental Health and Its Correlation With School Environment
Single-Sex Schools: Do They Impact Gender Relations?
Sociological Insights Into Dropout Rates in Low-Income Communities
How Does Parental Involvement Influence Children’s Academic Achievement?
Privatization of Education and Its Societal Consequences
Cultural Competence in Teachers: A Necessity for Multicultural Classrooms
The Role of Extracurricular Activities in Fostering Social Skills
Early Childhood Education: Its Influence on Social and Emotional Development

Sociology Research Topics on Social Movements

Environmental Activism and Its Societal Impact
Racial Equality Movements: Achievements and Challenges
Influences of Globalization on Local Social Movements
LGBTQ+ Activism: Progress and Resistance
Effects of Political Ideologies on Social Movements
The Intersectionality Approach in Contemporary Social Movements
Cyber Activism: New Avenues for Social Change
Examination of Labor Movements and Their Impact on Social Structures
Student Movements: Catalysts for Political Change?
Anti-War Protests: Influences on Policy and Public Opinion
Animal Rights Movements: Societal Attitudes and Legal Changes
Austerity Measures and the Rise of Anti-Capitalist Movements
Indigenous Movements: Struggle for Land Rights and Recognition
The Influence of Religion on Social Movements
Populist Movements and Their Impact on Democracies
The Black Lives Matter Movement: An Analysis of Its Social Influence
Disability Rights Movements: Progress and Remaining Barriers
Youth Activism: The Role in Climate Change Movements
Tea Party Movement: A Sociological Study of Its Origins and Influences
Intersection of Art and Social Movements: From Propaganda to Protest

Sociology Research Topics About Social Issues and Cultural Biases

Influences of Social Media on Cultural Biases and Perception
Impacts of Language and Communication on Perpetuating Social Stereotypes
Roles of Education in Shaping Cultural and Racial Biases
Exploration of Gender Stereotypes in Contemporary Advertising
Discrimination in Employment: A Sociological Perspective
Effects of Economic Inequality on Social Tensions and Biases
Roles of Mass Media in Shaping Body Image and Self-Perception
Dynamics of Immigration and the Perceptions of Cultural Biases
Biases in the Justice System: Racial and Economic Factors
Perpetuation of Class Distinctions through Education Systems
Media Representation of Minority Groups: A Study of Bias
Power Structures Within Societies and Their Influence on Cultural Biases
Intersectionality of Gender, Race, and Class in Social Inequality
Roles of Religion in Forming and Sustaining Cultural Biases
Family Structures and Their Impact on Social Issues
Disability, Society, and Cultural Bias: A Critical Analysis
Biases in Health Care: A Sociological Study on Inequities
LGBTQ+ Rights and Social Acceptance: A Global Perspective
Cultural Bias and Its Impact on International Relations
Internet Culture and Its Influence on Social Biases
Celebrity Influence on Society’s Perception of Cultural Norms and Biases

Sociology Research Topics on Medical Studies

The Influence of Social Class on Access to Medical Treatment
Societal Attitudes Toward Mental Illness: Implications for Medical Diagnosis and Treatment
Gender Disparities in Health Care: Exploring the Impact on Medical Outcomes
The Role of Stigma in Shaping Health-Seeking Behaviors in Marginalized Communities
Social Networks and Health: Examining the Impact of Social Support on Medical Outcomes
The Effect of Racial and Ethnic Discrimination on Healthcare Disparities
Social Determinants of Health: Understanding the Interplay Between Social Factors and Medical Conditions
Medicalization of Everyday Life: Analyzing the Social Construction of Illnesses and Disorders
Cultural Perspectives on Pain Management: Exploring Cross-Cultural Differences in Medical Approaches
The Sociology of Medical Ethics: Investigating the Social and Moral Dimensions of Medical Decision-Making
Power Dynamics in the Doctor-Patient Relationship: Unpacking Inequality and Authority
Medicalization of Aging: Examining the Social Implications of the Aging Population
Socioeconomic Factors and Health Inequalities: Analyzing the Relationship Between Income and Health
The Role of Religion in Shaping Medical Beliefs and Practices
Social Media and Health: Exploring the Impact of Online Communities on Medical Information and Behaviors
The Influence of Social Support on Chronic Disease Management
Social Stigma and HIV/AIDS: Examining the Social Challenges in Treatment and Prevention
Cultural Competence in Healthcare: Understanding the Importance of Diversity and Inclusion
The Social Construction of Disability: Exploring Perceptions and Experiences of Individuals With Disabilities in Medical Settings
Medicalization of Pregnancy and Childbirth: Analyzing the Social and Cultural Aspects of Reproductive Health

Environmental Sociology Research Topics

The Impact of Urbanization on Biodiversity Conservation
Analyzing the Socioeconomic Factors Influencing Environmental Activism
Investigating the Relationship Between Environmental Injustice and Marginalized Communities
Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Indigenous Cultures and Traditional Knowledge Systems
Understanding the Social Dynamics of Environmental Protests and Movements
Examining the Intersectionality of Gender and Environmental Conservation Efforts
Analyzing the Link Between Environmental Degradation and Public Health
Investigating the Socioeconomic Implications of Environmental Refugees
Exploring the Psychological Impact of Nature on Human Well-Being
Assessing the Role of Education in Promoting Environmental Consciousness
Analyzing the Sociocultural Factors Affecting Sustainable Consumption Patterns
Investigating the Impact of Environmental Policies on Industrial Practices
Examining the Socioeconomic Factors Influencing Environmental Decision-Making
Exploring the Relationship Between Environmental Conservation and Economic Development
Analyzing the Cultural Perceptions of Nature and the Environment
Investigating the Role of Social Capital in Environmental Governance
Assessing the Socioeconomic Implications of Climate Adaptation Strategies
Examining the Effects of Environmental Disasters on Community Resilience
Understanding the Relationship Between Environmental Awareness and Pro-Environmental Behaviors
Analyzing the Social Construction of Environmental Risk
Investigating the Role of Environmental NGOs in Policy Advocacy and Implementation

Sociology Research Topics on Food

The Impact of Globalization on Dietary Patterns: An Ethnographic Analysis
Food Insecurity and Social Stratification: Examining the Linkages
Cultural Appropriation and Culinary Traditions: A Sociological Perspective
Gender Roles and Food: Analyzing the Dynamics in Domestic Food Preparation
Food Waste and Its Socioeconomic Consequences: A Multidimensional Approach
The Social Construction of Taste: Exploring Food Preferences and Social Class
Food and Identity: The Role of Cuisine in Shaping Cultural and National Identities
Alternative Food Movements and Countercultural Resistance: An Exploration
The Impact of Food Advertising on Children’s Eating Habits: A Sociocultural Analysis
The Role of Food Rituals in Building Social Bonds and Community Cohesion
The Politics of Food: Analyzing Power Dynamics in the Food Industry
Food Deserts and Health Disparities: Investigating the Social Determinants of Food Access
Food and Social Media: Examining the Influence of Digital Platforms on Food Culture
The Cultural Significance of Street Food: A Comparative Study of Urban Spaces
The Role of Food Banks in Addressing Hunger and Poverty: A Sociological Inquiry
Food, Ethnicity, and Assimilation: Exploring Culinary Adaptations in Immigrant Communities
Food Justice Movements and Advocacy for Equitable Food Systems
The Social Dynamics of Food Sharing: A Cross-Cultural Analysis
Food Taboos and Social Norms: Investigating the Cultural Boundaries of Edible Practices
Food as a Symbol of Status and Prestige: An Examination of Luxury Consumption

Sociology Research Topics on Spiritualism & Religion

The Influence of Spiritual Beliefs on Gender Roles in Society
Exploring the Role of Religion in Shaping Cultural Identity
Analyzing the Relationship Between Spirituality and Mental Health
The Role of Religion in Political Movements and Social Change
Investigating the Effects of Religious Rituals on Individual Well-Being
Exploring the Connection Between Spirituality and Ethical Decision Making
The Influence of Religious Institutions on Social Hierarchies
Examining the Role of Spirituality in Coping With Trauma and Loss
Investigating the Effects of Religious Fundamentalism on Social Integration
Exploring the Role of Religion in Shaping Moral Values and Ethics
The Impact of Religious Education on Socialization and Identity Formation
Analyzing the Role of Religion in Shaping Health Beliefs and Practices
Investigating the Relationship Between Spirituality and Social Justice Movements
The Influence of Religious Symbols and Iconography on Collective Identity
Exploring the Role of Spirituality in Promoting Environmental Sustainability
The Impact of Religious Practices on Interpersonal Relationships and Social Bonds
Analyzing the Relationship Between Religious Beliefs and Political Ideologies
Investigating the Role of Spirituality in Promoting Social Equality
The Influence of Religion on Attitudes Toward LGBTQ+ Communities
Exploring the Connection Between Spirituality and Social Activism
The Impact of Religious Pluralism on Interfaith Dialogue and Cooperation

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256 LGBTQ+ Research Topics & Paper Ideas

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Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

Research topics and ideas about sociology

If you’re just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas , including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Sociology-Related Research Topics

Analyzing the social impact of income inequality on urban gentrification.
Investigating the effects of social media on family dynamics in the digital age.
The role of cultural factors in shaping dietary habits among different ethnic groups.
Analyzing the impact of globalization on indigenous communities.
Investigating the sociological factors behind the rise of populist politics in Europe.
The effect of neighborhood environment on adolescent development and behavior.
Analyzing the social implications of artificial intelligence on workforce dynamics.
Investigating the impact of urbanization on traditional social structures.
The role of religion in shaping social attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
Analyzing the sociological aspects of mental health stigma in the workplace.
Investigating the impact of migration on family structures in immigrant communities.
The effect of economic recessions on social class mobility.
Analyzing the role of social networks in the spread of disinformation.
Investigating the societal response to climate change and environmental crises.
The role of media representation in shaping public perceptions of crime.
Analyzing the sociocultural factors influencing consumer behavior.
Investigating the social dynamics of multigenerational households.
The impact of educational policies on social inequality.
Analyzing the social determinants of health disparities in urban areas.
Investigating the effects of urban green spaces on community well-being.
The role of social movements in shaping public policy.
Analyzing the impact of social welfare systems on poverty alleviation.
Investigating the sociological aspects of aging populations in developed countries.
The role of community engagement in local governance.
Analyzing the social effects of mass surveillance technologies.

Sociology Research Ideas (Continued)

Investigating the impact of gentrification on small businesses and local economies.
The role of cultural festivals in fostering community cohesion.
Analyzing the societal impacts of long-term unemployment.
Investigating the role of education in cultural integration processes.
The impact of social media on youth identity and self-expression.
Analyzing the sociological factors influencing drug abuse and addiction.
Investigating the role of urban planning in promoting social integration.
The impact of tourism on local communities and cultural preservation.
Analyzing the social dynamics of protest movements and civil unrest.
Investigating the role of language in cultural identity and social cohesion.
The impact of international trade policies on local labor markets.
Analyzing the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community development.
Investigating the impact of housing policies on homelessness.
The role of public transport systems in shaping urban social life.
Analyzing the social consequences of technological disruption in traditional industries.
Investigating the sociological implications of telecommuting and remote work trends.
The impact of social policies on gender equality and women’s rights.
Analyzing the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing societal challenges.
Investigating the effects of urban renewal projects on community identity.
The role of public art in urban regeneration and social commentary.
Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on education systems.
Investigating the sociological factors driving political apathy among young adults.
The role of community-based organizations in addressing urban poverty.
Analyzing the social impacts of large-scale sporting events on host cities.
Investigating the sociological dimensions of food insecurity in affluent societies.

Recent Studies & Publications: Sociology

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual sociology-related studies to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

Social system learning process (Subekti et al., 2022)
Sociography: Writing Differently (Kilby & Gilloch, 2022)
The Future of ‘Digital Research’ (Cipolla, 2022).
A sociological approach of literature in Leo N. Tolstoy’s short story God Sees the Truth, But Waits (Larasati & Irmawati, 2022)
Teaching methods of sociology research and social work to students at Vietnam Trade Union University (Huu, 2022)
Ideology and the New Social Movements (Scott, 2023)
The sociological craft through the lens of theatre (Holgersson, 2022).
An Essay on Sociological Thinking, Sociological Thought and the Relationship of a Sociologist (Sönmez & Sucu, 2022)
How Can Theories Represent Social Phenomena? (Fuhse, 2022)
Hyperscanning and the Future of Neurosociology (TenHouten et al., 2022)
Sociology of Wisdom: The Present and Perspectives (Jijyan et al., 2022). Collective Memory (Halbwachs & Coser, 2022)
Sociology as a scientific discipline: the post-positivist conception of J. Alexander and P. Kolomi (Vorona, 2022)
Murder by Usury and Organised Denial: A critical realist perspective on the liberating paradigm shift from psychopathic dominance towards human civilisation (Priels, 2022)
Analysis of Corruption Justice In The Perspective of Legal Sociology (Hayfa & Kansil, 2023)
Contributions to the Study of Sociology of Education: Classical Authors (Quentin & Sophie, 2022)
Inequality without Groups: Contemporary Theories of Categories, Intersectional Typicality, and the Disaggregation of Difference (Monk, 2022)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest. In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

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If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

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Sociology of gender.

The sociology of gender is one of the largest subfields within sociology and features theory and research that critically interrogates the social construction of gender, how gender interacts with other social forces in society, and how gender relates to social structure overall. The sociology of gender examines how society influences our understandings and perception of differences between masculinity (what society deems appropriate behavior for a “man”) and femininity (what society deems appropriate behavior for a “woman”). Sociologists within this subfield study a wide range of topics with a variety of research methods, including things like identity, social interaction, power and oppression, and the interaction of gender with other things like race, class, culture, religion, and sexuality, among others. The sociology of gender pays special focus on the power relationships that follow from the established gender order in a given society, as well as how this changes over time.

Introduction

Theorizing gender, heterosexual normality and biological/social reproduction, bodies, sex, and gender, gender and future research.

The use of the concept of gender to explain the social differences between males and females is a fairly recent focus in sociology. This is not to say that differences between the two have been ignored by sociologists but that those differences were understood as immutable biological facts and that the social was, in the last instance, powerless to change. The presumed “natural” binary of sex was taken for granted by nineteenth-century and most twentieth-century theorists, for whom men were the primary focus of sociological interest, with women making an appearance usually in discussions of marriage and the family.

The relative invisibility of women in the sociological enterprise, as in all Western intellectual traditions, was challenged with the advent of second-wave feminism in the 1960s. The challenge was not confined to the academy. Betty Friedan’s (1963) popular best-seller, The Feminist Mystique, and Kate Millet’s (1970) Sexual Politics critiqued the oppressive nature of male/female relationships, and the numerous consciousness-raising groups as well as feminist groups that emerged from various left and civil rights organizations also mounted trenchant critiques. Central to the critiques was the conviction that the “personal is political,” that feminist scholarship must be allied to feminist activism. In the academy, the marginality of women to the “intellectual, cultural, and political world” (Smith 1987:1) was contested, and vital interdisciplinary exchanges began the process of putting the natural binary under the microscope (Hess and Ferree 1987).

In the early years, research focused on sex roles rather than gender. Sex as well as class and race were “traditional” variables used in social science research, with the assumption that sex, as a biological given, simply meant checking a box for male or female on government or social science survey forms. Using the concept of sex roles was a way of introducing social and cultural factors into the research. The assumption was that socialization into appropriate male/female roles, although resting on a “natural” biological foundation, allowed, in theory at least, some possibility of social change in the unequal relationships between men and women. But the influential work of Talcott Parsons indicated that there were limitations to the use of role theory. Parsons and Bales (1955) linked sex roles to differences in social functions, with males normatively adopting instrumental functions and females expressive functions. These functional social roles were, however, tied to the dictates of a biological binary, and any profound variation in the roles and functions, such as women having careers, was understood to be dysfunctional to the stability of the social system (Parsons [1942] 1954).

Sex-role research was fruitful, however, in producing several empirically based studies on male/female differences (Maccoby and Jacklin 1975), which tended to show that there were no significant differences and that “women and men are psychologically very similar, as groups” (Connell 2002:42). Later research refined the concept of sex roles as defining “situated identities—assumed and relinquished as the situation demands—rather than master identities, such as sex category, that cut across situations” (West and Zimmermann 1987:128). It was also pointed out that roles are prescriptive expectations that vary culturally and historically and are not enacted passively; rather, both men and women actively and reflexively shape their sex roles (Connell 1987; Stacy and Thorne 1985). Consequently, the “functional ideas embedded in the concepts of ‘sex role’ and ‘socialization’” were shown to be “inadequate” because people often “do not become what they are expected to be” (Hess and Ferree 1987:14). More significant, critics pointed out that the concept of sex roles could not explain why men were nearly always the more valued members of any social group. In addition, the concept was theoretically problematic because sociologists did not refer to “race roles” or “class roles” (Eichler 1980; Hess and Ferree 1987).

Critiquing the concept of sex roles did not, however, eliminate the problem of the foundational assumption of immutable biological differences, which made the issue of significant change in male/female relationships problematic. In attempting to navigate the nature/nurture binary, Stoller’s (1968) distinction between “sex” as the biological evidence from chromosomes, hormones, and external genitalia and “gender” as the social, psychological, and cultural manifestations was influential. The distinction was initially used in psychoanalytic work on sex and gender “anomalies,” such as hermaphrodites and transsexuals (see Money and Ehrhardt 1972). For feminists, the distinction was a useful way of acknowledging the significance of sex and at the same time freeing them to concentrate on the social elaborations of gender differences. As Dorothy Smith (2002) points out, the distinction was a “political move” because “we had to believe that change was possible, that the repressions to which women were subjected were not the simple effect of biology” (p. ix). For example, Rubin (1975) suggested that the existence of two sexes gave rise to the social organization of gender in kinship systems, which are the “observable and empirical forms of sex/gender systems” (p. 169). Rubin’s analysis retained the assumption of two sexes as foundational, whereas Delphy (1984) maintained that gender precedes sex and that choosing the “bodily type” to explain the hierarchical division of men and women is an arbitrary choice that does not make sense either logically or historically. Biology itself does not necessarily “give birth to gender,” and to assume that it does means that the “existence of genders—of different social positions for men and women—is thus taken as a given and not requiring explanation” (p. 25). It became apparent that the ubiquity of the two-sex model needed to be dismantled if gender was to, as Delphy (p. 24) put it, to “take wing” theoretically.

Before looking at how gender “took wing,” two points need to be made about the following discussion. First, the initial investigations into gender were largely undertaken by feminist researchers. Some male researchers did initiate research on male roles and masculinity, but these discussions were often marginal to the central feminist debates theorizing gender (Brod 1987; David and Brannon 1976; Farrell 1975; Kimmel and Messner 1989; Pleck 1981). The focus of most research, as the subsequent discussion will illustrate, was mainly on the position of women and their experiences, to the extent that it often seemed that men did not “have” gender, that the universal male subject of Western theory remained intact. The second point has to do with the sex/gender distinction, which will loom large in our discussion. As Donna Haraway (1991:127) discovered, when asked to contribute the sex/gender entry to a feminist keywords text, this is a distinction that other languages and other non-English-speaking feminists do not make. The concept of sex/gender remains a problem for cross-cultural feminist debates, exemplified most recently in the responses to Felski’s (1997) article “The Doxa of Difference” and Hawkesworth’s (1997) article “Confounding Gender” and the responses to Hawkesworth’s article. To the extent that the following concentrates largely on the work of Englishspeaking feminists, the somewhat contested epistemological status of the sex/gender distinction should be kept in mind.

By the late 1970s, gender was the central concept for feminist research, although the issue of “sex” in relation to gender remained contentious. For example, sociobiology maintained that women’s reproductive biological destiny invariably results in social, sexual, political, and economic double standards that favor males (Barash 1977; Dawkins 1976; Wilson 1975). The sociobiological position was not uncontested, but sex became the “Achilles’ heel of 1970s feminism” despite its being relegated to the “domain of biology and medicine” (Fausto-Sterling 2005:1493). In general, gender was used to “supplant sex” but “not to replace it” (Nicholson 1994:80).

In the initial forays into gender research, Marx and Freud were the two theorists whose work provided a basis for critique. Marxist analysis, with its focus on oppression and exploitation, seemed to promise an appropriate revolutionary perspective for change. Both Marx and Engels agreed that the first form of class subordination was the subordination of women to men, and for this reason, Engels (1935) maintained that “in any given society the degree of women’s emancipation is the natural measure of the general emancipation” (p. 39). Critiquing Freud’s work was seen as a necessity because it provided the psychological theory that supported the idea of universal patriarchy and offered an explanation for women’s compliance with these arrangements. At the same time, Freud’s assumption of pre-Oedipal bisexuality and a common libido offered the possibility of reconceptualizing the development of sexual difference.

Some of the first approaches concentrated on “documenting gender difference” and understanding “how gender difference is constructed” (Marshall 2000:26). In this context, unpacking the historical and social nature and impact of patriarchy was a central issue. Max Weber ([1925] 1978) had defined patriarchy as the power of “men against women and children; of able-bodied as against those of lesser capability; of the adult against the child; of the old against the young” (p. 359). Following Weber, patriarchy was used as a general term denoting the near-universal male domination of women, having its basis in the family and household. Gerda Lerner (1986) pointed out that the foundation for family patriarchy was the control of women’s “sexual and reproductive capacity,” which occurred “prior to the formation of private property and class society” (p. 8). Women’s subordination preceded the formation of class societies, so class “is not a separate construct from gender; rather, class is expressed in genderic terms” (p. 213).

Although Lerner was at pains to point out that patriarchy was tied to the appropriation of women’s sexual and reproductive capacities, it was class issues filtered through Marx that initially took theoretical precedence in Anglophone sociology. Many feminists pursued the issue of patriarchy through vigorous debates over the connection between patriarchy and capitalism (Barrett 1980; Eisenstein 1979; Firestone 1970; Mitchell 1973; Sargent 1981; Walby 1990). What quickly became clear was that it was not possible to analytically separate the two, that capitalist patriarchy formed a unitary system. The debates produced important work on social class (Acker 1973; Giddens 1973; Kuhn and Wolpe 1978; Sargent 1981); the nature of women’s labor, especially domestic labor (Fox 1980; Luxton 1980; Oakley 1974; Seccombe 1974); and the variable role of the State in the perpetuation of gendered power relations (Balbus 1982; Coontz and Henderson 1986; Coward 1983; Eisenstein 1979; Elshtain 1982; Lowe and Hubbard 1983). In the last context, a considerable amount of work focused on the ways in which gender, class, and race have played out in civic entitlements, especially with respect to welfare benefits (Fraser 1989; Gordon 1994; Marshall 1994; Pateman 1988; Pringle and Watson 1992).

The focus on capitalist patriarchy, however, tended to leave traditional Marxist analyses of productive relations intact and simply added a “separate conception of the relations of gender hierarchy” (Young 1981:49). For example, the domestic labor debates of the 1970s pointed to the usefulness of domestic labor to capital but “became trapped in trying to assess whether housework produced surplus value or was just unproductive labor” (Thistle 2000:286). Furthermore, the dualisms of work/home, public/private appeared not as “mutually dependent but as separate and opposed. It is accordingly, virtually impossible to bring them together within a logically coherent and consistent account of social life” (Yeatman 1986:160). In general, the debates did not displace in practice or in theory what Connell (2002:142) calls the patriarchal dividend. The dividend refers to the very real advantages that men, as a group, derive from the unequal gender order. These advantages operate at all levels, from the local to the global, whatever the cultural, racial, or social differences. Connell concludes that most men have an interest in “sustaining— and, where necessary, defending—the current gender order” (p. 143).

The concern with class and stratification was also critiqued as ignoring race, ethnicity, and sexuality. The assumption seemed to be that the visibility of gender oppression required the invisibility of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and even class (Mohanty 1992:75). Many women of color, as well as gays and lesbians, correctly identified the way in which earlier discussions had privileged the position and interests of white, Western, heterosexual women, similar to the way in which “man” had been shorthand for white, Western, heterosexual males in post-Enlightenment sociological discourse (Barrett 1980; Collins 1990; hooks 1981; Rattansi 1995).

At the beginning of the United Nations Decade of Women, 1976, the idea of a “global sisterhood” suffering the same gender oppression came under fire, and it was pointed out that many white, privileged Western women were implicated in the patriarchal dividend enjoyed by their male counterparts (Bhavnani 2001). Critics pointed out that gender is constructed in and through differences of “race and class and vice versa” (Lovell 1996:310) and that race is “integral to white women’s gender identities” (Glenn 1992:35).

But recognizing “race” often resulted in black women, Third World women, and native women becoming the trendy “Other.” Ann duCille (1994) asked, “Why have we—black women—become the subjected subjects of much contemporary investigation, the peasants under the glass of intellectual inquiry in the 1990s?” (p. 592). Gayatri Spivak (1988) also critiqued the privileging of “whiteness” as the natural, normal condition that produced the colonial object on the assumption that race is something that belongs to others. A particularly important observation was that many white, Western, academic feminists were complicit in the “othering” process in using “native” informants to “build their academic careers, while the knowledgeable ‘objects of study’ receive nothing in return” (Mihesuah 2000:1250).

The focus on race was particularly significant to U.S. sociology given its history of race relations. Patricia Hill Collins (1990) conceptualizes the black experience in the United States, in its critical difference from the experiences of “whites,” as embodying an “outsider-within” perspective. She illustrates how African American women have their own take on their oppression and that they are “neither passive victims of nor willing accomplices in their own oppression” (p. xii). Collins points to the significance of everyday practices as the basis for understanding the intersection of race and gender that produces a “Black women’s standpoint,” not a “Black woman’s standpoint,” emphasizing the “collective values in Afrocentric communities” (p. 40, fn. 5).

In Collins’s work and that of others, the key point is that there are multiple and interlocking layers of oppression and domination (see also B. Smith 1983; D. Smith 1987). The “matrix of domination” points to power relations tied to an individual’s location on the interrelated structures of gender, race, class, and sexuality (Collins 1990). A significant part of the matrix was a “heterosexual norm” that produced taken-for-granted assumptions about sex, sexual identity, sexual desire, and sexual practice (Blackwood 1994). Sex and the biological binary, always an undercurrent in any of the debates discussed above, took on greater significance as feminists examined how people “have” and “do” gender and how or if, when considering human reproduction, biological essentialism can be avoided.

Feminists recognized that Freud’s theories provided psychological support to biological assumptions of “natural” sex differences that, in turn, supported the structural subordination of women under patriarchy (Coward 1983; Mitchell 1975). Jacqueline Rose (1986) suggested that Freud’s work gave an “account of patriarchal culture as a trans-historical and cross-cultural force” that “conforms to the feminist demand for a theory which can explain women’s subordination across specific cultures and different historical moments” (p. 90). As Jean Walton (2001) points out, psychoanalysis has always excluded race. The reworking of Freud by Lacan and the comments of other theorists such as Foucault and Derrida provided, and continue to provide, significant contributions to these debates (Braidotti 1991; Butler 1990, 1993; Butler and Scott 1992; Diprose 1994; Irigaray 1974; Kristeva 1986; Rose 1986). A key issue addressed was the presumed inevitability of a tie between biological reproduction and social mothering, which, in turn, was tied to the assumption of heterosexual normality. Chrys Ingram (1994) maintains that the idea that “institutionalized heterosexuality constitutes the standard for legitimate and prescriptive sociosexual arrangements” is one of the “major premises” of sociology in general and of some “feminist sociology” (p. 204). And Rosalind Petchesky (1980) pointed out “women’s reproductive situation is never the result of biology alone, but of biology mediated by social and cultural organization” (p. 667).

The significance of reproduction, reproductive choice, motherhood, and mothering was the focus of what has been called maternal feminist debates. Nancy Chodorow’s (1978) work was important to these debates. She suggested that while there are historical and cross-cultural variations in family and kinship structures, it is generally the case that women mother. This “mother-monopolized childrearing produces women who are able to and will want to mother in their turn” in contrast to men “who have a separate sense of self and who lack the capacity or the desire to nurture others” (Sydie 1987:151). Chodorow’s (1978) object-relations psychoanalytic analysis focuses on the primary, pre-Oedipal identification of both male and female children with the mother and the different ways in which separation occurs for each child. While the son’s identification with the father follows the process described by Freud, that of the daughter is different. Chodorow maintains that the daughter, who shares her sex with her mother, does not completely reject the mother, and in her “personal identification with her mother” she learns “what it is to be womanlike” (pp. 175–76). It is not biological sex as such but the “early social object-relationships” located mainly in the unconscious that determine the development of sexed identities and, in the case of women, produce mothers (p. 54).

Masculinity is thus more difficult to achieve and is largely predicted on distinguishing self from the feminine. Dorothy Dinnerstein (1977), whose work parallels Chodorow’s in many respects, suggested that both sexes have a terror of “sinking back wholly into the helplessness of infancy” so that for “Mother-raised humans, male authority is bound to look like a reasonable refuge from female authority” (pp. 161, 175). According to Dinnerstien, Freud was unable to account for the nearuniversal fear and hatred of women, but she maintains that this stance is the logical result of mother-monopolized child rearing, producing the male need to control women and women’s more or less willing submission. Both Chodorow and Dinnerstein suggest that the solution is to change the nature of parenting to include both men and women.

The accounts by Chodorow and Dinnerstein were criticized on several counts, not the least of which were the implicit Western nuclear family model they assumed and the lack of clarity as to how men might be incorporated into parenting and what happens if this does occur, for the child’s primary identification (Hirsch 1981; Lorber 1981; Spelman 1988). In such a situation, would the identification be bisexual, and if so, what are the consequences? (O’Brien 1981; Sayers 1982). Interestingly, Freud did posit an original bisexuality and common libido in the pre- Oedipal child that the castration fear resolves and that “normally” produces heterosexual gender identities (see Irigaray 1974). In general, it is this assumption of the normality of heterosexuality in these accounts that is a problem. MacKinnon (1982) summarized the heterosexual norm’s effects on women as follows: “Sexuality is to feminism what work is to marxism: that which is most one’s own, yet most taken away” (p. 515).

Adrienne Rich’s (1980) “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence” was an influential intervention into the sexuality and maternal feminist debates. Rich claimed that heterosexuality, like motherhood, needed to be “recognized and studied as a political institution” (p. 637). She points out that the structures that maintain heterosexuality and the ideology that claims its normality ensures the compliance of most women in their own subordination. Rich asks “why in fact women would ever redirect that search” (p. 637) if women are the primary love object. Her answer is that they are forced to do so because women’s identification with women could make them “indifferent” to men, introducing the possibility that “men could be allowed sexual and emotional—therefore economic—access to women only on women’s terms” (p. 643). Consequently, heterosexuality is something that has to be “imposed, managed, organized, propagandized, and maintained by force,” and lesbian existence and the lesbian continuum of “women-identified experience” throughout women’s lives has to be denied.

Many of the critiques on the hegemony of heterosexuality looked at its manifestations in and on the body, and about the body as a “text of culture” and a “practical, direct locus of social control” (Bordo 1989:13). The body as “text” was indebted to Foucault’s concept of bio-power and body aesthetics. Other critiques concentrated on the Western conception of the organically discrete, natural, two-sex human body as a social construction (Laqueur 1990; O’Neill 1985; Schiebinger 1993). Donna Haraway (1991) went further in her claim that the naturalized body was a fiction, that bodies must be understood as “biotechnical-biomedical” bodies in a “semiotic system” that produces the “cyborg” as “our ontology” (pp. 150, 211). While not necessarily producing cyborgs, biotechnological and biomedical interventions in reproduction, such as in vitro fertilization, surrogacy, sex selection, and cloning, have been critiqued as not necessarily producing positive outcomes for women’s health and their social, political, and economic welfare (Overall 1989; Sawicki 1999; Shildrick and Price 1998).

Michel Foucault’s (1976) conceptualization of the body as the site for the exercise of power through “disciplines of the body and the regulation of populations” and his understanding of power as productive as well as prohibitive and punitive provided an initial entry into the conceptualization of the body as the effect of discourse. In addition, Foucault’s demonstration that sexuality has been a “central preoccupation” of modern society that required the confession of a “true” sex identity—male or female, certainly not hermaphrodite—was suggestive. For Foucault, sex was the “naturalised product of a moral code which, through techniques of discipline, surveillance, self-knowledge, and confession organizes social control by stimulation rather than repression” (Foucault 1980:57). But as several feminists pointed out, Foucault’s observation that power is all-pervasive and constituted in the practices of the subjected prompts the question, How is resistance possible? (Diamond and Quinby 1988; Fraser 1989; Ramazanoglu 1993; Sawicki 1991). Further, the relations of power/ knowledge charted by Foucault may change, but they seem to do so by reaffirming “women’s marginal status” (Ricci 1987:24), and there appears to be “no moral high ground where the individual can exercise agency outside of the social codes which constitute desire asymmetrically” (Diprose 1994:24). Foucault himself was not particularly concerned with the gender of dominated subjects of a power/knowledge regime and did not take account of the “relations between masculinist authority” and, therefore, the gendered “language, discourse and reason” (Diamond and Quinby 1988:xv).

Judith Butler (1990), however, found Foucault’s notion of the constructed subject useful. She pointed out that this does not preclude the possibility of the subject’s agency; on the contrary, the construction is the “necessary scene of agency” (p. 147). If subjects are discursive productions and identities unstable fictions, then this allows feminists to “contest the rigid codes of hierarchical binarisms.” The binaries anyway produce “failures”—the assertive female, the effeminate male, the lipstick lesbian, and so on (p. 145). Gender is not simply constructed; it is performed and performed in relation to the sexual obverse—that is, heterosexual and homosexual bodies and practices are interdependent, produced by the regulative norms of compulsory heterosexuality. Furthermore, gender must be continually reproduced; there is no “original.” Nor does anything, performatively, go. In Bodies That Matter, Butler (1993) points out that the construction and performance of gendered bodies does not mean that some constructions are not necessary constructions. For example, Evelyn Fox Keller (1989) suggests that it is the “vital process that issues in the production of new life” that has compelled “people of all kinds throughout history, and across culture, to distinguish some bodies from others” (p. 316). We may play with, perform, and deconstruct sex and gender, but how can we develop “strategies for eliminating (not only resisting) certain kinds of gendered and sexual subordination and violence, precisely those that are not easily subject to resignification” (Brown 2003:368)? And it is reproduction, and its extension mothering, that seems especially resistant to resignification.

The deconstruction of sex and gender and their manifestations in bodies was important in the development of queer theory and for the increasing focus on the “trans”— transgender, transsexual, intersexuality, bisexuality, and various other “transgressions” of sex and gender dimorphisms (Findlay 1995). More specifically, Eva Sedgwick (1990), in her Epistemology of the Closet, claimed that to understand “virtually any aspect of modern Western culture,” it is necessary to “incorporate a critical analysis of modern homo/heterosexual definition” (p. 1).

Queer theory seeks to challenge the “master categories” of heterosexuality and homosexuality as “marking the truth of sexual selves,” by understanding them as “categories of knowledge, a language that frames what we know as bodies, desires, sexualities, identities: . . . a normative language that erects moral boundaries and political hierarchies” (Seidman 1994:174). Queer theory also points to the poverty of sexuality studies in mainstream sociology, which has used labeling theory and/or a deviance perspective to study gay, lesbian, and alternative “subcultures” (Namaste 1994:227), although Epstein (1994:193) claims that the “involvement of sociologists in the study of sexuality” was a significant subset of mainstream sociology, stemming initially from Kinsey’s work, which has diminished only in recent years.

There has been a veritable explosion of research under the general rubric of queer theory, although much of the work also falls under the general rubric of cultural studies rather than sociology (for a general review of the academic history and current status of queer theory, see Marcus 2005). Steven Seidman (1994) states that although queer theory challenges the “regime of sexuality itself” and “aspires to transform homosexual theory into general social theory or one standpoint from which to analyze whole societies,” to date, “queer theory and sociology have barely acknowledged one another” (p. 174).

A critical issue for queer theorists remains the underlying question of how biology figures in these social constructions. Seeing identities as “multiple, unstable, and regulatory” as well as “pragmatic” and relating this to “concerns of situational advantage, political gain, and conceptual utility” may be a laudable standpoint for the contested social and cultural arena of sex/sexuality/gender studies (Seidman 1994:173). Meanwhile biology, especially evolutionary biology, continues to retain a binary take on physical bodies based on the assumption of natural chromosomal, hormonal, and genital binary difference (Haraway 1991).

Ignoring biology and concentrating on social construction seems to be a misguided position for feminists given the focus of some recent medical research. For example, medicine has searched for gay genes and for differences in brain structures between men and women as well as homosexuals and heterosexuals, and in biology, the studied attempts to deny the existence of “homosexuality” as well as the general “plethora of sex diversity” in the nonhuman animal world persists (Hird 2004). Anne Fausto-Sterling (2005) points out that although contemporary biomedical research seems to deal with sex “in the 1970s feminist meaning of the word, sex sometimes strays into arenas that traditional feminists claim for gender” (p. 1497). Fausto- Sterling concludes with a “call to arms” for feminists to recognize that “culture is a partner in producing body systems commonly referred to as biology” (p. 1516).

Attention to the treatment of the body of the intersexed is one of the ways in which the culture/body relation has been examined in recent years (Heyes 2003; Hird 2000, 2003, 2004; Kessler 1990). According to Hird (2003), the intersexed, defined as “infants born with genitals that are neither clearly ‘female’ nor ‘male,’” (p. 1067) are estimated to comprise up to 2 percent of births. These infants present a “profound challenge to those cultures dependent on a two-gender system,” and intersexed infants are “routinely surgically and hormonally gender reassigned” (p. 1068). The reassignment occurs despite some compelling evidence that for many of these infants, the process is traumatic and often less than successful in producing a stable gender identity in later years (see Hird 2004:135 on the John/Joan case). A critical point in the definition of and treatment of the intersexed is made by Wilchins, who asks, “Why are [intersex] people forced to produce a binary sexed identity? . . . What kinds of categories of analysis would emerge if nontransgendered anthropological bodies were forced to explicate themselves in terms of intersexuality, rather than the other way around?” (quoted in Hird 2003:1068).

Feminist attention to medical treatments of sex identity is more than warranted given the fact that although medicine “requires a biological definition of the intersexual’s ‘sex,’ the surgeons, endocrinologists and psychiatrists themselves clearly employ a social definition” (Hird 2004:136). Kessler (1998) calls medicine’s surgical interventions a “failure of the imagination” in not recognizing that “each of their management decisions is a moment when a specific instance of biological ‘sex’ is transformed into a culturally constructed gender” (p. 32). Furthermore, the insistence on choosing one of two “sexes” is ironic given the fact that the majority of human cells are intersexed, chromosomes have no sex, and there are many species that do not require sex for reproduction. In sum, although the corporeal body in its external fleshy manifestation is important, “beneath the surface of our skin exists an entire world of networks of bacteria, microbes, molecules, and inorganic life,” and they take “little account of ‘sexual difference’” and indeed exist and reproduce without any recourse to what we think of as reproduction” (Hird 2004:142). In addition, the insistence on “identity” as the manifestation of a sovereign “human” subject is compromised by the fact that the Human Genome Diversity Project has shown that humans share the vast majority of their genes with animals, especially with primates. The Genome Project “far from fixing ‘proper’ human identity . . . has shown it to be impure and fluid from the start,” illustrating “profound interconnections and shared genetic identity, with everyone drawing on a common gene pool” (Shildrick 2004:162, 160).

This more recent feminist focus on science, especially biological science, in attempting to sort out sex, sexuality, and gender returns to but confounds the old nature/nurture problem that the sex/gender and biology/social distinctions were to address. The distinctions were initially a fruitful way for feminism to mount important critiques of socialcultural gender inequity, but they were always unstable. Understanding the complexity of our animality is a part of the recognition that dichotomies, in any context, are poor science and poor sociology.

As the discussion above illustrates, the concept of gender has proven to be ambiguous, complex, and contradictory, and this is unlikely to change in the near future. In the midst of the debates, Chafetz’s (1999) point is worth remembering: “All theory pertaining to gender is not feminist, although all feminist theory centers much or all of its attention on gender” (p. 4). There is still a need to unpack the “taken-for-granted assumptions about gender that pervade sociological research, and social life generally” (Ferree, Lorber, and Hess 1999:xii). For example, Stephanie Knaak (2004) points out that when the “standard ‘gender = male/female’ variable” is used in research “as the main proxy for gender,” this superficial assumption threatens the “overall quality of our research” (p. 312).

There are some directions that might be fruitfully explored in the future, although they by no means exhaust all possibilities; others may have quite different ideas of how to go on in the sociological enterprise. One suggestion is to “bring men back in.” Jeff Hearn (2004) suggests that it is

time to go back from masculinity to men, to examine the hegemony of men and about men. The hegemony of men seeks to address the double complexity that men are both a social category formed by the gender system and dominant collective and individual agents of social practices. (P. 59)

Hearn points out that “men” are “formed in men’s hegemony . . . and form that hegemony” and that the individual as well as the collective hegemony of men is reproduced and contested in all societies “both as a social category and in men’s practices” (p. 61). Tania Modleski (1991), however, registers a caution with respect to scholars who, under the guise of feminist sympathies, appropriate “feminist analysis” to “negate the critiques and undermine the goals of feminism—in effect delivering us back to a prefeminist world” (p. 3).

The second direction to explore in greater depth is the way in which control by bio-power is deployed on a global scale as bio-political power. Rather than the disciplined subject “whose behaviour expresses internalized social norms,” control, according to Clough (2003), “aims at a never-ending modulation of moods, capacities, affects, potentialities, assembled in genetic codes, identification numbers, ratings profiles and preference listings; that is to say, bodies of data and information (including the human body as information and data” (p. 360). If sex and gender are deployed as “natural” binaries in national and global statistical reports about “distributed chances of life and death, health and morbidity, fertility and infertility, happiness and unhappiness, freedom and imprisonment” (p. 361), the use of such information for any emancipatory practices is limited. For this reason, a return to macrolevel stratification theory on the order of Lenski’s application of POET—“population, organization, ecology and technology”—as suggested by Huber (2004:259), could be useful.

Gender theorists still contend with “two powerful, mutually canceling truths in feminism: on the one hand, there is no stable sex or gender and on the other, women too often find themselves unable to escape their gender and the sexual norms governing it” (Brown 2003:366). These two conceptions must also contend with the frequent reports of the “death of feminism,” most particularly from a variety of conservative, often religiously inspired, traditionalists— both male and female (Hawkesworth 2004). The view from the antifeminist or nonfeminist women must not be simplistically dismissed as “false consciousness”; what is needed is to “know how they think as they do, how and in what terms and with what conflicts they experience their femininity” (Scott 1997:701).

Finally, sociologists as gender theorists need to contend with the tendency of the discipline to marginalize or co-opt gender issues, especially when these issues are linked to systems of inequality in the politics of everyday life (Young 1994). This returns us to the initial starting point of feminist appropriation of gender—the recognition that the concept is a political, economic, and social marker of inequality, whatever its theoretical stability. As Nancy Fraser and Nancy A. Naples (2003) contend, some of the debates in recent feminist theory that tended to see inequities as problems of culture left us “defenseless against free-market fundamentalism” and helped to “consolidate a tragic historic disjunction between theory and practice” (p. 1117). This is particularly troubling given the “acceleration of globalization” and the transformation of “circumstances of justice” by undermining the sovereignty of states. The struggle over governance as “representation” must therefore be added to the “(economic) dimension of redistribution and the (cultural) dimension of recognition.”

The above suggestions are but a few that emerge from feminist struggles with the concept of gender. The issues, like all the issues and debates outlined above, are not confined to the disciplinary boundaries of sociology however they may be construed. But if sociology is to have any relevance in the twenty-first century, then gender, as a critical focus of sociological analysis, is important, especially if sociology is to be true to its origins as an engaged political and ethical scientific practice.

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Sawicki, Jana. 1999. “Disciplining Mothers: Feminism and the New Reproductive Technologies.” Pp. 190–202 in Feminist Theory and the Body, edited by J. Price and M. Shildrick. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
Sawicki, Jana. 1991. Disciplining Foucault. New York: Routledge.
Sayers, Janet. 1982. Biological Politics. London, England: Tavistock.
Schiebinger, L. 1993. Nature’s Body. London, England: Pandora. Scott, Joan. 1997. “Comment on Hawkesworth’s ‘Confounding Gender.’” Signs 22:697–702.
Seccombe, Wally. 1974. “The Housewife and Her Labor under Capitalism.” New Left Review 83:3–34.
Sedgwick, Eva Kosofsky. 1990. Epistemology of the Closet. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Seidman, Steven. 1994. “Symposium: Queer Theory/Sociology: A Dialogue.” Sociological Theory 12:166–77.
Shildrick, M. and J. Price, eds. 1998. Vital Signs. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
Shildrick, M. 2004. “Genetics, Normativity and Ethics.” Feminist Theory 5:149–65.
Smith, Barbara, ed. 1983. Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology. New York: Kitchen Table,Women of Color Press.
Smith, Dorothy. 1987. The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
Smith, Dorothy. 2002. “Forward.” Pp. ix–xii in Doing Gender, Doing Difference, edited by S. Fenstermaker and C. West. New York: Routledge.
Spelman, Elizabeth. 1988. Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Feminist Thought. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Spencer, Herbert. [1899] 1969. The Principles of Sociology. Vol. 3. New York: Macmillan.
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Pp. 271–313 in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by C. Nelson and L. Grossberg. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Stacy, J. and B. Thorne. 1985. “The Missing Feminist Revolution in Sociology.” Social Problems 32:301–16.
Stacy, J. and B. Thorne. 1996. “Is Sociology Still Missing Its Feminist Revolution?” Perspectives: The ASA Theory Section Newsletter 18:1–3.
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Walby, Sylvia. 1990. Theorizing Patriarchy. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
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100+ Best Sociology Research Topics

Table of contents

1 What is Sociology Research Paper?
2 Tips on How To Choose a Good Sociology Research Topic
3 Culture and Society Sociology Research Topics
4 Urban Sociology Topics
5 Education Sociology Research Topics
6 Race and Ethnicity Sociology Research Topics
7 Medicine and Mental Health Sociology Research Topics
8 Family Sociology Research Topics
9 Environmental Sociology Research Topics
10 Crime Sociology Research Topics
11 Sociology Research Topics for High School Students
12.1 Conclusion

As the name suggests, Sociology is one topic that provides users with information about social relations. Sociology cuts into different areas, including family and social networks.

As the name suggests, Sociology is one topic that provides users with information about social relations. Sociology cuts into different areas, including family and social networks. It cuts across all other categories of relationships that involve more than one communicating human. Hence this is to say that sociology, as a discipline and research interest, studies the behaviour and nature of humans when associating with each other.

Sociology generally involves research. It analyses empirical data to conclude humans psychology. Factor analysis is one of the popular tools with which sociology research is carried out. Other tools that stand out are research papers.

Sociology research topics and research are deep data-based studies. With which experts learn more about the human-to-human association and their respective psychology. There are dedicated easy sociology research topics on gender and sociology research topics for college students. They are majorly passed on as a thesis. This article will consider Sociology Research papers and different types of essay topics relevant to modern times.

What is Sociology Research Paper?

A sociology Research paper or essay is written in a format similar to a report. It is fundamentally rooted in statistical analysis, Interviews, questionnaires, text analysis, and many more metrics. It is a sociology research paper because it includes studying the human state in terms of living, activity, couples and family association, and survival.

The most demanding part of a sociology research writing project is drafting a quantitative analysis. Many college projects and post-graduate theses will require quantitative analysis for results. However, sociology topics for traditional purposes may only need textual analysis founded on simple close-end questionnaires.

To write a sociology research topic, one will need to know the problem and how to get the needed solution. A sociology project must have a problem, a hypothesis, and the possible best solution for solving it. It must also be unique, which means it is not just a piece of writing that can be lifted anywhere from the internet. It is best to pay for a research paper founded on sociology to know how to create an excellent context matter or use it for your project.

Tips on How To Choose a Good Sociology Research Topic

It is one thing to understand the concept of a research topic and another to know how to write a sociology paper . There are processes and things that must be followed for a research paper to come outright. It includes researching, outlining, planning, and organizing the steps.

It is important to have a systematic arrangement of your steps. This is done in other to get excellent Sociology research topic ideas. The steps to getting perfect Sociology research paper topics are outlined below.

Choose a topic that works with your Strength While it may be tempting to pick a unique topic, you should go for one that you can easily work on. This is very important as you will be able to provide a strong case. That is when dealing with a subject you understand compared to one that you barely know how works. Unless otherwise stated, always choose a topic you understand.
Pick a good Scope The next step you should take after selecting a topic is to narrow it to a problem or several related problems that a single hypothesis can conveniently encompass. This will help you achieve a better concentration of effort and give you a very strong ground as you know the direction of the research before you even start.

While these steps are significant, you should have a concrete understanding of sociology to craft a standard project. If that is a little complex for you, you should buy a research paper on sociology at affordable prices to get what you want. You can find several reliable service providers online.

Culture and Society Sociology Research Topics

Culture and society are the foundation of sociology research projects. Humans are divided into different cultures and are categorized into societies. There is a sense of class, status, and, sadly, race bias. Sociology paper projects usually focus on these metrics to understand why humans act the way they do and what is expected over the years.

This section will consider the best sociology research paper topics examples that you can work with.

The effect of cultural appropriation in the long term.
The effect of media on human attitude and behavior.
How political differences affect friendship and family relationships.
Important social justice issues affecting society.
Association between political affiliation and religion.
Adult children who care for their children while also caring for their aged parents.
Senior citizens who are beyond retirement age and still in the workforce.
The effect and evolution of cancel culture.
Public distrust in political appointees and elected officials.
The unique separation challenges that those who work from home face in their workplace.

Urban Sociology Topics

With immense progress in every sector and the continuous evolution of technology, the conventional and more conservative way of association is fading off. These days, almost every person wants to be associated with the urban lifestyle. This section considers Easy sociology research titles in urban lifestyles and what they hold for the future.

The human relationship and social media.
Characteristics of long-lasting childhood relationship.
Industrial Revolution and its impact on a relationship and family structure.
Factors that lead to divorce.
Urban spacing and policy.
Urban services as regards local welfare.
Socialisation: how it has evolved over time.
Infertility and its impact on marriage success.
Marginalised and vulnerable groups in urban areas.

Education Sociology Research Topics

Education is social. The younger age group of any society population is the target of sociology research. Most Sociology Research Topics on Education focus on how teenagers and young adults relate with themselves, modernized equipment, and the available resources.

Here are some topics on Education Sociology Research Topic:

The relationship between success in school and socioeconomic status.
To what extent do low-income families rely on the school to provide food for their children?
The outcome of classroom learning compared to homeschool pupils.
How does peer pressure affect school children?
To what extent do standardized admission tests determine college success?
What is the link between k-12 success and college success?
The role of school attendance on children’s social skills progress.
How to promote equality among school children from economic handicap backgrounds.
The bias prevalent in the k-12 curricula approved by the state.
The effect of preschool on a child’s elementary school success.

Race and Ethnicity Sociology Research Topics

Race and ethnicity are major categories in sociology, and as such, there are many sociology research topics and ideas that you can select from. This section considers several race-based titles for research.

The race-based bias that happens in the workplace.
Pros and cons of interracial marriages.
Areas of life where race-based discrimination is prevalent.
Racial stereotypes have the potential to destroy people’s life.
How does nationality determine career development?
Assimilation and immigration.
Voter’s behaviour towards gender and race.
Gender and racial wage gaps.
As an American immigrant, how do I become a validated voter?
Underpinning ethics of nationality, ethnicity, and race.

Medicine and Mental Health Sociology Research Topics

Medical sociology research topics ideas are among the more social science project work option available to social scientists. Society has always affected the growth of medicine and mental health, and some data back this claim.

There are many medicines & mental health Sociological Topics that you can work on, and the major ones are considered in this section.

The impact of COVID-19 on our health.
Is milk harmful to adults, or is it another myth?
Unhealthy and healthy methods of dealing with stress.
Is it ethical to transplant organs?
How do people become addicts?
How does lack of regular sleep affect our health?
The effect of sugar consumption on our health.
The effects of bullying on the person’s mental health.
The relationship between social depression or anxiety and social media presence.
The effects of school shootings on students’ mental health, parents, staff, and faculty.

Family Sociology Research Topics

Sociology research topics on family are one of the more interesting sociology-based topics that researchers and experts consider. Here are some topics in family sociology research topics.

How does divorce affect children?
The impact of cross-racial adoption on society and children.
The impact of single parenting on children.
Social programs are designed for children who have challenges communicating with their parents.
Sociology of marriage and families.
How to quit helicopter parenting.
The expectation of parents on the work that nannies do.
Should children learn gender studies from childhood?
Can a healthy kid be raised in an unconventional family?
How much should parents influence their children’s attitudes, behaviour, and decisions?

Environmental Sociology Research Topics

This section considers sociology research titles on the environment

Should green energy be used instead of atomic energy sources?
The relationship between nature and consumerism culture.
The bias from the media during environmental issues coverage.
Political global changes are resulting in environmental challenges.
How to prevent industrial waste from remote areas of the world.
Utilising of natural resources and the digital era.
Why middle school students should be taught social ecology.
What is the connection between environmental conditions and group behaviour?
How can the condition of an environment affect its population, public health, economic livelihoods, and everyday life?
The relationship between economic factors and environmental conditions.

Crime Sociology Research Topics

There are multiple Sociology research topics on crime that researchers can create projects on. Here are the top choices to select from.

The crime rate changes in places where marijuana is legalised.
How does the unemployment rate influence crime?
The relationship between juvenile crime and the social, economic status of the family.
Factors that determine gang membership or affiliation.
How does upbringing affect adult anti-social behaviour?
How does cultural background and gender affect how a person views drug abuse.
The relationship between law violation and mental health.
How can gun possession be made safe with stricter laws?
The difference between homicide and murder.
The difference between criminal and civil cases.

Sociology Research Topics for High School Students

High school students are a major part of sociology research due to the peculiarity of the population. Here are some topics in sociology research.

The effect of social media usage in the classroom.
The impact of online communication on one’s social skills.
The difference between spiritualism and religion.
Should males and females have the same rights in the workplace?
How gender and role stereotypes are presented on TV.
The effect of music and music education on teenagers.
The effect of globalisation on various cultures.
What influences the problematic attitudes of young people towards their future.
The effect of meat consumption on our environment.
The factors contributing to the rate of high school dropouts.

Sociology Research Topics for College Students

Several sociology research topics focus on college students, and this section will consider them.

Immigration and assimilation.
Big cities and racial segregation.
Multicultural Society and dominant cultures.
College students and social media.
The role of nationalities and language at school.
School adolescents and their deviant behaviour.
Ways of resolving conflict while on campus.
Social movements impact the awareness of bullying.
The role models of the past decade versus the ones in recent times.
The effect of changes in the educational field on new students.

Sociology is a fascinating field of study, and there are plenty of compelling research topics to choose from. Writing an essay on sociology can be a challenging task if you don’t know where to start. If you’re feeling overwhelmed, you can always turn to a writing essay service for help. There are many services that offer professional assistance in researching and crafting a sociology essay. From exploring popular sociological theories to looking at current events, there are countless topics to consider.

This article has considered a vast Sociology research topics list. The topics were divided into ten different categories directly impacted by the concept of sociology. These topic examples are well-drafted and are in line with the demand for recent sociological concepts. Therefore if you seek topics in sociology that you would love to work on, then the ones on this list are good options to consider.

However, you need to understand the basics of draft sociology research to get the benefits of these topics. If that is not possible given the time frame of the project, then you could opt to buy sociology research on your desired topic of interest.

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100 best sociology research topics for students.

Are you looking for the best sociology research topics? You might have noticed that it can be very difficult to find great topics that can get you an A+ on your essay. This happens because most of your classmates are picking the same topics for their own papers. You need to learn how to find original sociology research topics. You need to make your topics interesting if want a greater chance of getting a top grade. To help you with this, we will give you 100 sociology research topics and also a couple of tips and tricks. These topics are free and you can use any of them as you see fit.

Good Sociology Paper Topics Are Very Important

Truth be told, students have a lot to gain if they learn how to find the best possible sociology papers topics. Did you notice that some of your peers manage to get very good grades without trying too much? How do they do it? Well, you may be surprised to find out that the sociology paper topics you choose have a great influence on your grade. Here is why:

Professors tend to award bonus points to papers that discuss interesting topics.
Coming up with original sociology essay topics demonstrates to your professor that you’ve dedicated ample time to the project.
Excellent topics in sociology are a sign that you took the essay seriously. Professors don’t expect works of art; they do, however, want to see implication on your part.

Is It Easy to Find Topics in Sociology?

Frankly, finding some great sociology research topics for college students is not easy. Even though the Internet is full of topics, tips and tricks, you will have a hard time finding the perfect topic. Moreover, your colleagues will often pick the same topics. If you want to stand out from the crowd, you need to find some original. Of course, the easy way to do this is to ask for help. You can easily find a team of experienced academic writers on the Internet. An academic writing company can help you with a list of good sociology topics in no time. Alternatively, you can give out list of 100 topics a try.

The List of Sociology Research Topics for College Students

We are providing this list of sociology topics to write about for free. Also, we make every effort to update the list as frequently as possible. These topics are perfect for 2023. However, we advise students to look at our sociology research topics list, pick the best topic for their needs, and then modify them. You are advised to change the wording because this list is public. Anyone can read it and use the topics contained within. Pick any one of these good sociology research topics and make it even better by making it original.

Easy Sociology Research Paper Topics

Don’t want to spend a lot of time writing the paper? Here are some researchable topics in sociology that will prove to be pretty simple for you:

The problems posed by domestic violence.
How does divorce affects a child?
Hurdles of low-income families.
Causes of family conflicts.
What makes a marriage successful?
Is single parenting difficult?
Problems of teenage pregnancy.
Frequent causes of conflicts among teenagers.

Sociology Research Topics for High School Students

If you are a high school student and you need some original research topics for sociology, here are some of the best options for you in 2023:

Discuss social norms in your area.
Discuss social sanctions in your area.
How to overcome personal conflicts.
What is political socialization?
Discuss gender stereotypes.
Does the environment impact our society?
What is eco-feminism?

Sociology Topics for Presentation

If you are required to create a presentation, we have a list of excellent sociology topics for presentation. Here are some of the best examples:

Presenting the relations between humans and nature.
The social views of Plato.
The social views of Aristotle.
The strike as a productivity conflict.
Social development and religion.
Leadership and efficiency at the workplace.
Culture as a way of socialization.

Social Media Sociology

Social media is a very interesting subject and it is closely related to sociology. Here are some of the best sociology projects topics for social media:

Are social networks secure?
Popularity of social networks in various groups.
What is social media addiction?
Effects of social media overuse.
Social media marketing and anorexia.
Sharing personal information on social networks.
Is blogging really a profession?

Sociology Research Proposal Topics

Need a sociology paper topic for a research proposal? These are a bit more difficult to come by, but our writers managed to put together a list of excellent examples for you:

Discussing gender stereotypes in sports.
Pakistan and the violation of women’s rights.
Does sexual abuse lead to eating disorders?
Discuss immigrant families in the UK.
The effect of birth control on society. (one of the best sociology topics for research)
Does the Internet create isolation?
Are we relying too much on Google?

Nationality and Race

What better way to write a sociology paper worthy of a top grade than to write on a topic related to nationality and race? Pick a sociology topic for research paper from these and start writing:

The sociology behind ethnic relations.
What is the “white supremacist” current?
What causes ethnic problems?
Analyze the genocide in Darfur.
Why do people immigrate?
Racial stereotypes affect our self-esteem.
Does foreign education equal a successful career?

Interesting Sociology Topics

Interesting topics are almost guaranteed to get you a top grade. Pick a sociology research paper topic from the following list and get the A+ or at least the A you need:

The causes of bullying.
The effects of bullying.
Why are family roles so important?
Analyzing the “body culture.”
Is shopping a sociological practice?
Deviant behavior or teenagers.
Why are teenagers so curious?

Persuasive Speech Topics for College Students

If you are looking for some persuasive speech topics for college students, we have the best ones on the Internet. Here is what we are talking about:

What should we do with our free time?
What is sociological knowledge?
Technology is affecting the way we eat.
Fast food is damaging our society.
Social media is making us less social.
Musical education should be mandatory.
Nationalism is happening all around us.

Sociology Project Topics

Sociology projects can be very difficult to complete. However, the topic you choose can ease your workload immensely. Here are some good examples:

Analyze the human rights.
Does the capital punishment have the intended effect?
Who’s the father of sociology ?
Religion is affecting human rights.
Education and the Down Syndrome.
The effect of social media on youth.
Consequences of advertising to children.
Analyzing healthcare in NYC.

Gender Sociology

It can be difficult to write about gender sociology, we know. This is why our academic writers have put together a list of great gender sociology topics for you:

Problems with gender in our society.
What are gender stereotypes?
Eliminating stereotypes based on gender.
Gender studies for youth.
The link between nationality and homosexuality.
Should every country legalize LGBT?
Define gender inequality.

Sociology Survey Topics

We know you are probably having a difficult time finding interesting sociology survey topics. Don’t worry about it too much though. Just pick one of these examples:

Is bulimia widespread in the UK?
Social distancing during the COVID-19 crisis.
What leads to poor health?
Are there more unemployed women than men?
Does poverty decrease life expectancy?
How widespread is police brutality?
Are our youths exposed to violence?

Family and Relationships

Family and relationships topics are some of the best for sociology papers. However, not all topics you find online will impress your professor. These, however, will:

Social media effects on relationships.
Discuss the modern US family.
What is helicopter parenting?
Does adoption affect our society?
Divorce: Consequences for children.
Single parenting difficulties.

Sociology Thesis Topics

The topic you choose for your sociology thesis is extremely important. It’s the first thing the professor sees. Pick one of these and never look back:

Parenting in LGBT families.
The sociology of marriage.
The gender aspect of unemployment in the US.
Discussing social inequalities in modern society.
Do romantic comedies affect women emotionally?

Terrorism/War Sociology Topics for Paper

Looking for a nice terrorist or war topic in sociology? Why don’t you choose one of these topics and start writing the paper right now:

Effects of terrorism on society.
Negative effects of was on our society.
Social reaction to the Vietnam war.
Why do certain groups produce more terrorists than others?
What makes a terrorist become a terrorist?

Human Behavior Research Topic for Sociology

Human behavior is very complex, and so are sociology papers written on this subject. But they don’t have to be! Here are some clever examples:

What regulates the human behavior?
The history of behavior.
What leads to suicidal behavior?
What is personality resocialization?
The various models of behavior.

These sociology research topics are here for you. They are original at the time of writing and have been created by a team of expert academic writers . Pick any of our sociology research paper topics and start writing an exceptional essay right now. We wish you the best of luck. And remember, we are always here to help high school and college students with the best advice, information, tips and tricks.

Handbook of the Sociology of Gender

© 2018
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Barbara J. Risman 0 ,
Carissa M. Froyum 1 ,
William J. Scarborough 2

University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA

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University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, USA

Comprehensive in its coverage of theory and research applications
Provides the most current and up-to-date information on the state of gender inequality and the scholarship of it
Synthesizes the diverse field of gender scholarship into a cohesive theoretical framework of gender structure theory

Part of the book series: Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research (HSSR)

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About this book

Gender Studies: A Theoretical Perspective

Gender Discrimination

The complexity of gender: it is all that and more….in sum, it is complicated.

Cultural Studies
Gender Structure Theory
Feminist Epistemology
Gender and the Global South
Individual-Dimension Theory
Gender essentialism and Self-Expressive Values
Developing Gendered Identities
Gender Bias in Modern Workplaces

Racializing Gendered Interactions

Gender Interactions at Schools
Gender and Social Communities
Gender and Organizational Theory
Sexuality on College Campuses
Gender Bodies and Intimate Relationships
Sexual Practices across the Life Course
Gendered Socialization of Emotions

Table of contents (40 chapters)

Front matter, theoretical and epistemological context, introduction: new developments in gender research: multidimensional frameworks, intersectionality, and thinking beyond the binary.

William J. Scarborough

Gender as a Social Structure

Barbara J. Risman

Feminist Epistemology, Feminist Methodology, and the Study of Gender

Joey Sprague

Gender Theory as Southern Theory

Pallavi Banerjee, Raewyn Connell

Intersectionality and Gender Theory

Zandria F. Robinson

The Individual Level of Analysis in the Gender Structure

Becoming gendered.

Heidi M. Gansen, Karin A. Martin

Gendered Embodiment

Katherine Mason

Does Biology Limit Equality?

Shannon N. Davis, Alysia Blake

Gender Identities

Natalie N. Castañeda, Carla A. Pfeffer

Mental Health: An Intersectional Approach

Verna M. Keith, Diane R. Brown

Multiple Masculinities

James W. Messerschmidt

The Interactional Level of Analysis

Framing gender.

Susan R. Fisk, Cecilia L. Ridgeway

Interactional Accountability

Jocelyn A. Hollander
Koji Chavez, Adia Harvey Wingfield

Gendered Interactions in School

Kristen Myers

The Macro Level of Analysis

Editors and affiliations.

Barbara J. Risman, William J. Scarborough

Carissa M. Froyum

About the editors

Bibliographic information.

Book Title : Handbook of the Sociology of Gender

Editors : Barbara J. Risman, Carissa M. Froyum, William J. Scarborough

Series Title : Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Social Sciences , Social Sciences (R0)

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-319-76332-3 Published: 13 June 2018

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-09468-3 Published: 24 January 2019

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-76333-0 Published: 05 June 2018

Series ISSN : 1389-6903

Series E-ISSN : 2542-839X

Edition Number : 2

Number of Pages : XII, 559

Number of Illustrations : 3 b/w illustrations

Topics : Gender Studies , Gender Studies , Methodology of the Social Sciences , Social Structure, Social Inequality , Social Theory

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The Sociology of Gender

Key Concepts
Major Sociologists
News & Issues
Research, Samples, and Statistics
Recommended Reading
Archaeology

The Difference Between Sex and Gender

To understand the sociology of gender one must first understand how sociologists define gender and sex . Though male/female and man/woman are often conflated in the English language, they actually refer to two very different things: sex and gender. The former, sex, is understood by sociologists to be a biological categorization based on reproductive organs. Most people fall into the categories of male and female, however, some people are born with sex organs that do not clearly fit either category, and they are known as intersex. Either way, sex is a biological classification based on body parts.

Gender, on the other hand, is a social classification based on one's identity, presentation of self, behavior, and interaction with others. Sociologists view gender as learned behavior and a culturally produced identity, and as such, it is a social category.

The Social Construction of Gender

That gender is a social construct becomes especially apparent when one compares how men and women behave across different cultures, and how in some cultures and societies, other genders exist too. In Western industrialized nations like the U.S., people tend to think of masculinity and femininity in dichotomous terms, viewing men and women as distinctly different and opposites. Other cultures, however, challenge this assumption and have less distinct views of masculinity and femininity. For example, historically there was a category of people in the Navajo culture called berdaches, who were anatomically normal men but who were defined as a third gender considered to fall between male and female. Berdaches married other ordinary men (not Berdaches), although neither was considered homosexual, as they would be in today’s Western culture.

What this suggests is that we learn gender through the process of socialization . For many people, this process begins before they are even born, with parents selecting gendered names on the basis of the sex of a fetus, and by decorating the incoming baby's room and selecting its toys and clothes in color-coded and gendered ways that reflect cultural expectations and stereotypes. Then, from infancy on, we are socialized by family, educators, religious leaders, peer groups, and the wider community, who teach us what is expected from us in terms of appearance and behavior based on whether they code us as a boy or a girl. Media and popular culture play important roles in teaching us gender too.

One result of gender socialization is the formation of gender identity, which is one’s definition of oneself as a man or woman. Gender identity shapes how we think about others and ourselves and also influences our behaviors. For example, gender differences exist in the likelihood of drug and alcohol abuse, violent behavior, depression, and aggressive driving. Gender identity also has an especially strong effect on how we dress and present ourselves, and what we want our bodies to look like, as measured by "normative" standards.

Major Sociological Theories of Gender

Each major sociological framework has its own views and theories regarding gender and how it relates to other aspects of society.

During the mid-twentieth century, functionalist theorists argued that men filled instrumental roles in society while women filled expressive roles , which worked to the benefit of society. They viewed a gendered division of labor as important and necessary for the smooth functioning of a modern society. Further, this perspective suggests that our socialization into prescribed roles drives gender inequality by encouraging men and women to make different choices about family and work. For example, these theorists see wage inequalities as the result of choices women make, assuming they choose family roles that compete with their work roles, which renders them less valuable employees from the managerial standpoint.

However, most sociologists now view this functionalist approach as outdated and sexist, and there is now plenty of scientific evidence to suggest that the wage gap is influenced by deeply ingrained gender biases rather than by choices men and women make about family-work balance.

A popular and contemporary approach within the sociology of gender is influenced by symbolic interactionist theory, which focuses on the micro-level everyday interactions that produce and challenge gender as we know it. Sociologists West and Zimmerman popularized this approach with their 1987 article on "doing gender," which illustrated how gender is something that is produced through interaction between people, and as such is an interactional accomplishment. This approach highlights the instability and fluidity of gender and recognizes that since it is produced by people through interaction, it is fundamentally changeable.

Within the sociology of gender, those inspired by conflict theory focus on how gender and assumptions and biases about gender differences lead to the empowerment of men, oppression of women, and the structural inequality of women relative to men. These sociologists see gendered power dynamics as built into the social structure , and thus manifested throughout all aspects of a patriarchal society. For example, from this viewpoint, wage inequalities that exist between men and women result from men’s historic power to devalue women’s work and benefit as a group from the services that women’s labor provides.

Feminist theorists, building on aspects of the three areas of theory described above, focus on the structural forces, values, world views, norms, and everyday behaviors that create inequality and injustice on the basis of gender. Importantly, they also focus on how these social forces can be changed to create a just and equal society in which no one is penalized for their gender.

Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

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211+ Sociology Research Topics for College Students [2024]

Post author By Ankit
February 2, 2024

The word sociology is a common term nowadays. In it, we peek into how people hang out and live together. You can assume it is like a magnifying glass, studying how families, communities, and societies work. It’s all about spotting the patterns that shape our everyday lives, from family moments to big societal changes.

Sociology is like a tool reflecting our daily experiences, revealing how power, culture, and inequalities play out in our lives. Come on this journey to uncover society’s mysteries and explore research topics anyone can dig into. Let’s go and find more in this blog about trending sociology research topics for college students.

Table of Contents

How Do We Define Sociology?

Sociology is the study of relationships and institutions of people in society. It examines how societies are structured and how they transform with time. Sociologists look into stuff ranging from minute engagements involving persons to major societal events.

Some specific areas sociological research touches on include social class, gender roles, family structure, education, religion, media, and politics. Sociology aims to explore the intricate links between actions by individuals and wider social powers.

It helps us understand better the problems and prospects societies are grappling with today and what tomorrow might hold for us.

Also Read: Top 10 Reasons Why We Study Sociology Of Education: Beyond the Classroom

Best 211+ Sociology Research Topics for College Students

Check out the top sociology research topics for college students in 2024.

Family Dynamics

The evolving role of grandparents in modern families.
Sibling relationships and their impact on individual development.
Parental involvement in children’s extracurricular activities.
The influence of family structure on adolescents’ mental health.
Cultural variations in approaches to disciplining children.
Coping mechanisms for families dealing with chronic illnesses.
Adoption and its effects on family dynamics.
Balancing work and family life: Strategies for success.
The impact of divorce on children’s long-term well-being.
Mutli-age communication in immigrant families.
Extended families and their role in childcare support.
Parental expectations and their influence on children’s aspirations.
Managing conflicts in blended families.
The significance of family rituals in maintaining cohesion.
Family resilience in the face of economic hardships.

Education and Socialization

The role of school uniforms in shaping students’ identities.
Socioeconomic disparities in access to quality preschool education.
Homeschooling: Motivations and challenges for families.
Impact of peer relationships on academic performance.
The role of teachers in shaping students’ social awareness.
Gender stereotypes in educational materials and their effects.
Student activism and its impact on campus culture.
Parental involvement in homework: Striking the right balance.
The significance of school clubs in fostering social skills.
Inclusive education: Addressing diverse learning needs.
Extracurricular activities and their influence on social development.
The impact of bullying prevention programs in schools.
School policies on technology use and social interactions.
Homeschooling: A comparative analysis of different approaches.
Peer pressure and its implications for adolescent behavior.

Media and Popular Culture

The portrayal of mental health in movies and its societal impact.
Memes and their role in shaping internet subcultures.
Influence of social media on beauty standards.
The representation of LGBTQ+ characters in mainstream media.
Analyzing the impact of reality TV on societal perceptions.
Music subcultures and their influence on youth identity.
Online gaming communities and social interactions.
The role of influencers in shaping consumer behavior.
News media framing: Impact on public opinion.
Cultural appropriation in the music industry.
Podcasts and their role in disseminating social commentary.
Evolution of fashion trends: Cultural influences.
Social media activism and its effectiveness.
Celebrity endorsements and consumer choices.
Analyzing the portrayal of aging in popular culture.

Crime and Deviance

Cyberbullying: A growing challenge in the digital age.
The social implications of drug decriminalization.
White-collar crime and its impact on trust in institutions.
Neighborhood watch programs and community safety.
The role of rehabilitation in reducing recidivism.
Youth gang involvement: Causes and prevention.
Corporate crime: Analyzing major ethical violations.
The impact of social support on ex-convicts’ reintegration.
Gender disparities in sentencing within the criminal justice system.
Hate crimes: Understanding motivations and consequences.
Vigilantism and its impact on community safety.
Graffiti is an expression of social dissent.
The role of surveillance in preventing and solving crimes.
Policing strategies and their impact on community trust.
Restorative justice programs and community healing.

Race and Ethnicity

Interracial relationships: Challenges and societal attitudes.
Microaggressions and their subtle effects on marginalized groups.
Cultural appropriation in the beauty industry.
Ethnic identity and mental health outcomes.
The portrayal of race in historical films.
Systemic racism in housing policies.
Cultural assimilation and its impact on immigrant communities.
Analyzing racial profiling in law enforcement.
Language diversity and its role in shaping ethnic identity.
Religious diversity within ethnic communities.
Colorism and its effects on self-esteem.
Immigrant experiences in the workplace.
Cultural festivals as expressions of identity.
Affirmative action policies: Perspectives and controversies.
Historical trauma and its impact on indigenous communities.

Gender Studies

The representation of women in STEM fields.
Gendered expectations in romantic relationships.
Non-binary identities and societal acceptance.
The impact of paternity leave on gender roles.
The portrayal of masculinity in advertising.
Feminism in the workplace: Progress and challenges.
Gender-based violence prevention programs.
Women in leadership: Breaking the glass ceiling.
The involvement of men in the feminist campaign.
Analyzing gender stereotypes in children’s toys.
Women’s reproductive rights and societal attitudes.
The impact of media on body image perceptions.
LGBTQ+ inclusivity in sex education.
Menstrual equity: Addressing social stigmas.
The intersectionality of race and gender.

Health and Society

Access to healthcare in marginalized communities.
The impact of social support on mental health.
Cultural variations in attitudes towards mental illness.
Body positivity movements and their influence.
Healthcare disparities among different socio-economic groups.
The role of holiness in coping with disease.
Online health communities and peer support.
The stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS.
Nutrition education and its impact on community health.
Healthcare access for individuals with disabilities.
Aging populations and healthcare challenges.
The impact of workplace wellness programs.
Mental health interventions in schools.
Holistic approaches to healthcare and well-being.
The influence of social relationships on health behaviors.

Workplace and Organizations

Remote work and its impact on work-life balance.
The role of mentorship in career development.
Employee burnout and its effects on workplace productivity.
Diversity and inclusion in corporate environments.
The gig economy: Benefits and drawbacks for workers.
Glass ceiling: Factors contributing to gender disparities.
Workplace harassment prevention programs.
Unionization and workers’ rights in the modern era.
Corporate social responsibility and employee engagement.
Navigating generational differences in the workplace.
The impact of automation on job displacement.
Flexible work arrangements and their societal implications.
Workforce training programs for skill development.
Employee wellness initiatives and their effectiveness.
The role of organizational culture in shaping behavior.

Political Sociology

Political polarization and its impact on societal cohesion.
Youth engagement in political activism.
Social media’s influence on political opinions.
Voter suppression and its effects on marginalized communities.
The role of lobbying in shaping general guidelines.
Populism and its influence on political landscapes.
The impact of campaign financing on democracy.
Grassroots movements and their role in political change.
Political party affiliation and social identity.
Civic education: Fostering informed citizenry.
The influence of special interest groups on policy-making.
Political correctness and freedom of speech debates.
Social movements and their historical impact on politics.
International perspectives on political participation.
The influence of social networks on political organization and activism.

Environmental Sociology

Climate change activism and its societal impact.
Environmental justice and marginalized communities.
Consumer behaviors and their environmental consequences.
Sustainable living: Challenges and solutions.
The role of indigenous knowledge in environmental conservation.
Environmental education in schools.
Urban planning and its impact on the environment.
The carbon footprint of different lifestyle choices.
E-waste management and its social implications.
Plastic pollution and societal attitudes towards single-use plastics.
Renewable energy adoption and social attitudes.
Eco-friendly practices in business and consumer choices.
Deforestation and its impact on local communities.
The role of government policies in environmental conservation.
Public awareness campaigns for environmental sustainability.

Globalization

Cultural homogenization in the era of globalization.
The impact of globalization on traditional crafts and trades.
Outsourcing and its effects on local economies.
Global health disparities and social factors.
The digital divide in access to technology.
Cultural exchange programs and their impact on global understanding.
International trade agreements and their social consequences.
Migration patterns in the context of globalization.
Global tourism and its effects on local cultures.
Language diversity in the age of global communication.
Global supply chains and labor conditions.
The role of multinational corporations in shaping global norms.
Global citizenship education in schools.
Immigration policies and their impact on global migration patterns.
Cross-cultural communication challenges in globalized workplaces.

Social Inequality

Wealth inequality and its impact on societal stability.
Social class mobility: Examining factors that facilitate or hinder it.
Disability representation in the media and its societal effects.
Ageism in the workplace: Addressing stereotypes.
Discrimination based on physical appearance.
LGBTQ+ rights and societal acceptance.
Educational opportunities and socio-economic disparities.
Inequality in access to technology and digital literacy.
Social welfare programs: Evaluating their effectiveness.
The impact of economic recessions on social inequality.
The role of affirmative action in reducing inequality.
Social mobility and its correlation with educational attainment.
Racial wealth gap: Historical roots and contemporary consequences.
Intersectionality and its implications for social justice.
Analyzing disparities in healthcare access and outcomes.

Technology and Society

The impact of automation on job markets.
Privacy concerns in the era of big data.
Social media’s role in shaping political opinions.
Artificial intelligence and its societal implications.
Online education and its impact on traditional learning models.
Cybersecurity and societal vulnerabilities.
Biotechnology and ethical considerations.
Wearable technology and its effects on personal privacy.
The role of technology in combating social isolation.
The influence of algorithms on online content consumption.
Digital activism: Social movements in the online space.
Technological advancements in healthcare and their societal impact.
Internet censorship and freedom of expression.
Smart cities: Balancing technological innovation with social well-being.
The ethical implications of gene editing technologies.
The impact of technology on interpersonal relationships.
Virtual reality and its potential for social change.
The intersection of technology and environmental sustainability.
Social consequences of increased reliance on artificial intelligence.

Youth and Adolescence

The impact of peer pressure on decision-making in adolescence.
Social media’s influence on teenage self-esteem.
Bullying in schools and its long-term effects on youth.
Exploring the challenges of navigating adolescence in different cultures.
Youth involvement in community service and its benefits.
The role of family dynamics in shaping adults behavior.
The effects of early exposure to technology on cognitive development.
Cultural variations in rites of passage for young people.
Teenage rebellion and its impact on family relationships.
Influence of societal expectations on career choices among youth.
Impact of extracurricular activities on youth development.
Mental health stigma and its effects on seeking help among teenagers.
Youth activism and its role in addressing societal issues.
The impact of societal beauty standards on adolescent body image.
Exploring the concept of digital citizenship among young people.
Youth perspectives on political and social issues.

Now, let’s move on to the tips for choosing a good sociology research topic after finding the top research ideas.

Tips on How To Pick a Good Sociology Research Topic

Learn the tips to choose perfect sociology research topics for college students.

1. Choose a Topic You’re Genuinely Interested In

Pick a sociology topic that you find engaging, intriguing, or meaningful. Your level of interest will show in your writing and research quality.

2. Select a Relevant, Timely Sociological Issue

Sociology focuses on current issues and problems in society. Choose a topic that ties into modern societal discussions and debates. This makes your work more appropriate and impactful.

3. Narrow the Focus Enough for In-Depth Analysis

Don’t pick a vast topic like “technology and society.” Narrow it to something more specific, like “social media’s impact on mental health.”

4. Ensure Sufficient Sources are Available

Review sociology journals to verify enough scholarly research exists to support your paper. Choose a topic with substantial studies to study and discuss.

5. Align with Your Sociology Coursework

Connecting your research topic to theories or subjects already being studied makes the process easier and enhances your learning. Build on what you know.

6. Consult with Your Professor

Ask your teacher if the topic is fit for the assignment and scope. Get guidance to ensure you choose an appropriate, fruitful focus.

7. Pick an Ethical, Thoughtful Topic

Avoid topics that could be derogatory or morally questionable unless addressed in an academic sociological framework. It is a wise idea to focus on ethical issues.

From the above points, it is clear that picking a perfect research topic is a daunting task, but when you have a clear approach, you can pick it in time.

Value Of Sociology Research For College Students

Read the importance of sociology research topics for college students.

Understanding How Society Works: Studying sociology helps students learn about various parts of society, like how people interact, how groups function, and how organizations work. Looking at things like injustice, family types, school systems, etc., through a sociological view can provide new understandings.

Developing Skills for Critical Thinking: Learning sociology promotes skills for thoughtful questioning as students learn to question beliefs about society and consider complex issues from many views. It enables them to thoughtfully reflect on how social forces shape human behavior.

Preparation for Diverse Work Settings: Learning sociology research helps prepare students to work with various people. By studying different cultures, social groups, and inequity in society, students gain more awareness and care for others.

Informing Rules on Social Issues: Sociology studies guide creating and improving social policies on poverty, crime, education, etc. Sociology research is critical to making effective policies for students in policy, law, advocacy, etc.

Building Skills for Research: From planning studies to gathering and analyzing data, sociology research projects allow students to gain helpful research abilities. These skills, like conducting interviews, surveys, and ethnography, are widely applicable.

Thus, sociology empowers students to assess the social world critically, grasp complex social issues, relate to different groups, and build key research capabilities for future work. Its study is beneficial for college students.

Structure of a Sociology Research Paper

Here is the breakdown of a sociology research paper structure.

Introduction

Start by giving some background on your topic – don’t assume readers know everything about it already. Then, clearly state your main argument in simple, straightforward language.

Body Paragraphs

Focus each paragraph on one key idea that supports your argument. Open with a topic sentence introducing the main point. Then, back it up with real-world examples, facts, quotes, etc. Explain how this evidence relates to your argument in a way your readers can understand.
Transition smoothly from point to point. Use phrases like “Moving on” or “Turning to” to connect ideas.
Acknowledge different perspectives, but show why your claims make more sense.
Restate your argument in fresh words – don’t repeat the introduction word-for-word.
Summarize the major points covered in the essay. Remind readers why they should care about this topic and argument.
Wrap up with some final thoughts on the implications of your argument. Where do we go from here? Give readers something to chew on.
Cite sources. Proofread thoroughly!

The overall goal is to present your ideas in a logical, convincing way that readers can follow after reading the paper.

Picking a good sociology research topic for your college paper can be tricky. Still, hopefully, this post has given you some ideas to think about. Sociology covers many topics, so you’ll find something you’re interested in and care about.

The key is to choose a focused, manageable topic that you can study in depth within the length of your paper or project. Remember to pick something that makes you curious and excited to learn more.

Ask your professor for help if you’re stuck. With an open and curious mindset, you’ll be able to pick a sociology topic that’s meaningful and rewarding to research. Good luck with your studies!

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2021	Gender Codes: Exploring Malaysia’s Gender Parity in Computer Science	Computer Science
2021	The Voice of Technology: Understanding The Work Of Feminine Voice Assistants and the Feminization of the Interface	Computer Science
2021	Whose Voices, Whose Values? Environmental Policy Effects Ofextra-Community Sovereignty Advocacy	Environmental Science and Public Policy
2021	“Felons, Not Families”: The Construction of Immigrant Criminality in Obama-Era Policies and Discourses, 2011-2016	History and Literature
2021	Seeing Beyond the Binary: The Photographic Construction of Queer Identity in Interwar Paris and Berlin	History and Literature
2021	Iconic Market Women: The Unsung Heroines of Post-Colonial Ghana (1960s-1990s)	History and Literature: Ethnic Studies
2021	From Stove Polish to the She-E-O: The Historical Relationship Between the American Feminist Movement and Consumer Culture	Social Studies
2021	“Interstitial Existence,” De-Personification, and Black Women’s Resistance to Police Brutality	Social Studies
2021	#Metoo Meets #Blm: Understanding Black Feminist Anti-Violence Activism in the United States	Social Studies
2021	"Why Won’t Anyone Fight For Us?”: A Contemporary Class Analysis of the Positions and Politics of H-1b and H-4 Visa Holders	Social Studies

2020	A Feminist Scientific Exploration of Minority Stress and Eating Pathology in Transgender Adolescents
2020	From Decolonization to LGBTQ + Liberation: LGBTQ+ Activism, Colonial History and National Identity in Guyana
2020	La Pocha, Sin Raíces / Spoiled Fruit, Without Roots: A Genealogy of Tejana Borderland Imaginaries	Anthropology
2020	Capturing Authenticity in Indian Transmasculine Identity: Design of a Novel Penile Prosthesis	Biomedical Engineering
2020	More Than Missing: Analyzing Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Policy Trajectories in the United States and Canada, 2015-2019	Government
2020	“Almost Perfect”: The Cleansing and Erasure of Undocumented and Queer Identities through Performance of Model Families and Citizensh	History & Literature
2020	"He Needs a New Belt:” Queerness, Homonationalism, and the Racial and Sexual Dimensions of Passing in Israeli Cinema	History & Literature
2020	Our Healthy Bodies, Our Healthy Selves: Community Women's Health Centers as Collaborative Sites of Politics, Education, and Care	History of Science
2020	“No Way to Speak of Myself”: Lived and Literary Resistance to Gender in French	Romance Languages and Literatures
2020	Through Eastern European Eyes and Under the Western Gaze: The (Un)Feminist Face of the Russo-Ukrainian War	Slavic Languages and Literatures
2020	Subversion and Subordination: The Materialization of the YouTube Beauty Community in Everyday Reality	Social Studies

2019	Mirror, Mirror, On The Wall, Why Can’t I See Myself At All?: A Close Reading of Children’s Picture Books Featuring Gender Expansive Children of Color	African and African-American Studies
2019	Dilating Health, Healthcare, and Well-Being: Experiences of LGBTQ+ Thai People	Biomedical Engineering
2019	The Consociationalist Culprit: Explaining Women’s Lack of Political Representation in Northern Ireland	Government
2019	Queering the Political Sphere: Play, Performance, and Civil Society with the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence in San Francisco, 1979-1999	Government
2019	Playing With Power: Kink, Race, and Desire	History and Literature
2019	“Take Root:” Community Formation at the San Francisco Chinatown Branch Public Library, 1970s-1990s	History and Literature

2018	Fetal Tomfoolery: Comedy, Activism, and Reproductive Justice in the Pro-Abortion Work of the Lady Parts Justice League
2018	And They're Saying It's Because of the Internet: An Exploration of Sexuality Urban Legends Online	Folklore and Mythology
2018	(In)visibly Queer: Assessing Disparities in the Adjudication of U.S. LGBTQ Asylum Cases	Government

2017	Enough for Today
2017	Radical Appropriations: A Cultural History and Critical Theorization of Cultural Appropriation in Drag Performance
2017	Surviving Safe Spaces: Exploring Survivor Narratives and Community-Based Responses to LGBTQ Intimate Partner Violence
2017	“The Cruelest of All Pains”: Birth, Compassion, and the Female Body in	English
2017	Virtually Normal? How “Initiation” Shapes the Pursuit of Modern Gay Relationships	Social Studies
2017	How Stigma Impacts Mental Health: The Minority Stress Model and Unwed Mothers in South Korea	Sociology
2017	The Future is Taken Care of: Care Robots, Migrant Workers, and the Re-production of Japanese Identity	Visual and Environmental Studies

2016	Bodies on the Line: Empowerment through Collective Subjectification in Women's Rugby Culture
2016	"In the Middle of the Movement": Advocating for Sexuality and Reproductive Health Rights in the Nonprofit Industrial Complex	Anthropology
2016	Breaking the Equator: Formation and Fragmentation of Gender and Race in Indigenous Ecuador	Social Studies
2016	Deconstructing the American Dream: in Kodak Advertisements and Shirley Cards in Post World War II American Culture	Visual and Environmental Studies

2015	Imposing Consent: Past Paradigms, Gender Norms, and the Continuing Conflation of Health and Genital Appearance in Medical Practice for Intersex Infants
2015	And I am Telling You, You Can’t Stop the Beat: Locating Narratives of Racial Crossover in Musical Theater	History and Literature
2015	Reality® Check: Shifting Discourses of “Female Empowerment” in the History of the Reality Female Condom, 1989-2000	History and Science
2015	Dialectics of a Feminist Future	Literature
2015	Lesbian Against the Law: Indian Lesbian Activism and Film, 1987-2014	Literature
2015	Talking Dirty: Using the Pornographic to Negotiate Sexual Discourse in Public and Private	Philosophy
2015	Wars Are Fought, They Are Also Told: A Study of 9/11 and the War on Terrorism in U.S. History Textbooks	Social Studies

2014	Yoko as a Narrator in Nobuyoshi Araki’s and
2014	Reading at an Angle: Theorizing Young Women Reading Science-Fictionally	English and American Literature
2014	“Are you Ready to be Strong?”: Images of Female Empowerment in 1990s Popular Culture	History and Literature
2014	Constructing the Harvard Man: Eugenics, the Science of Physical Education, and Masculinity at Harvard, 1879-1919	History and Science
2014	Sex, Science, and Politics in the Sociobiology Debate	History and Science
2014	"A Little Bit of Sodomy in Me”: Disgust, Loss, and the Politics of Redemption in the American Ex-Gay Movement	Religion
2014	Art of Disturbance: Trans-Actions on the Stage of the US-Mexico Border	Romance Languages and Literatures
2014	“Too Important for Politics”: The Implications of “Autonomy” in the Indian Women’s Movement	Social Studies
2014	Yes, No, Maybe: The Politics of Consent Under Compulsory Sex-Positivity	Social Studies

2013	Inside the Master's House: Gender, Sexuality, and the 'Impossible' History of Slavery in Jamaica, 1753-1786
2013	Illuminating the Darkness Beneath the Lamp: Im Yong-sin’s Disappearance from History and Rewriting the History of Women in Korea’s Colonial Period (1910-1945)	East Asian Languages and Civilizations
2013	"How to Survive a Plague": Navigating AIDS in Mark Doty's Poetry	English and American Literature
2013	Respectability's Girl: Images of Black Girlhood Innocence, 1920-2013	History and Literature
2013	Defining Our Own Lives: The Racial, Gendered, and Postcolonial Experience of Black Women in the Netherlands	Social Studies
2013	Beyond Victim-Blaming: Strategies of Rape Response through Narrative	Sociology

2012	From “Ultimate Females” to “Be(ing) Me”: Uncovering Australian Intersex Experiences and Perspectives
2012	Modernity on Trial: Sodomy and Nation in Malaysia
2012	: Woven Accounts of Gender, Work and Motherhood in South Korea
2012	Sexual Apartheid: Marginalized Identity(s) in South Africa's HIV/AIDS Interventions
2012	The Pornographer's Tools: A Critical and Artistic Response to the Pornography of Georges Bataille and Anaïs Nin
2012	Cerebral interhemispheric connectivity and autism: A laboratory investigation of Dkk3 function in the postmitotic development of callosal projection neuron subpopulations and a historical analysis of the reported male prevalence of autism and the “extreme male brain” theory	Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology

2011	"Let's Just Invite Them In" versus "We Just Don't Have the Resources to Support You": Selective and Non-Selective College Administrators as Creators of Alcohol Policies and Practices, Campus Cultures, and Students' Identities, and Implications for Opportunities in Higher Education
2011	Plaintiffs' Role in Reinventing Legal Arguments for Same-Sex Marriage
2011	Facing Tijuana's Maquilas: An Inquiry into Embodied Viewership of the US-Mexico Border	Romance Languages and Literatures
2011	"The Woman Who Shouts": Coming to Voice as a Young Urban Female Leader	Social Studies
2011	Closet Communities: A Study of Queer Life in Cairo	Social Studies
2011	Redefining Survival: Statistics and the Language of Uncertainty at the Height of the AIDS Epidemic	Statistics

2010	A Genealogy of Gay Male Representation from the Lavender Scare to Lavender Containment
2010	More Than "Thoughts by the Way": Young Women and the Overland Journey Finding Themselves Through Narrative Voice, 1940-1870
2010	Que(e)rying Harvard Men, 1941-1951: A Project on Oral Histories
2010	When Welfare Queens Speak: Survival Rhetoric in the Face of Domination	African and African American Studies
2010	ACT UP New York: Art, Activism and the AIDS Crisis, 1987-1993	Visual and Environmental Studies

2009	"Gay, Straight, or Lying?": The Cultural Silencing of Male Bisexuality in America
2009	"I had never seen a beautiful woman with just one breast": Beauty and Norms of Femininity in Popular Breast Cancer Narratives
2009	Diego Garcia: Islands of Empire, Archipelagos of Resistance
2009	Zion Sexing Palestine
2009	Are You Sisters?: Motherhood, Sisterhood, and the Impossible Black Lesbian Subject	African and African American Studies
2009	Girl Interpellated: Female Childhoods and the Trauma of Nationalist Subjectivity	History and Literature
2009	Breaching the Subject of Birth: An Examination of Undergraduate Women's Perceptions of "Alternative" Birthing Methods	Sociology

2008	Biomedicalizing the Labor of Love: Narratives of Maternal Disability and Reproduction
2008	Dis/locating the Margins: Gloria Anzaldúa and New Potential for Feminist Pedagogy
2008	Mommy, Where Do Babies Come From? Egg Donation and Popular Constructions of Authentic Motherhood
2008	Parallel Histories and Mutual Lessons: Advocates Negotiate Feminism and Domestic Violence Services in Immigrant Communities in Boston
2008	SILENCE=DEATH: (Re)Presentations of "The AIDS Epidemic" 1981-1990
2008	The "Sparrow in the Cage": Images of the Emaciated Body in Representations of Anorexia Nervosa
2008	Theater of the Abject: The Powers of Horror in Sarah Kane's
2008	Toward a Participatory Framework for Inclusive Citizenship: Haitian Immigrant Women's Claim to Civic Space in Boston
2008	"Keepin' it Real," Queering the Real: Queer Hip Hop and the Performance of Authenticity	African and African American Studies
2008	On the Surface: Conceptualizing Gender and Subjectivity in Chinese Lesbian Culture	East Asian Languages and Civilization
2008	Viewing Post-War Black Politics Through a New Lens: Tracing Changes in Ann Perry's Conception of the Mother-Child Relationship, 1943-1965	History and Literature
2008	Silent Families and Invisible Sex: Christian Nationalism and the 2004 Texas Sex Education Battle	Social Studies
2008	White 2.0: Theorizing White Feminist Blogging	Social Studies

2007	Do Mothers Experience The Mommy Wars?: An Examination of the Media's Claims About the Mommy Wars and the Mothers Who Supposedly Fight In Them
2007	On The Offense: The Apologetic Defense and Women's Sports
2007	Stop Being Polite & Start Getting "Real": Examining Madonna & Black Culture Appropriation in the MTV Generation
2007	The Inviability of Balance: Performing Female Political Candidacy
2007	The Money Taboo	English
2007	Somewhere Over the Rainbow Nation: The Dynamics of the Gay and Lesbian Movement and the Countermovement After a Decade of Democracy in South Africa	Government
2007	Facing The Empress: Modern Representations of Women, Power and Ideology In Dynasty China	Religion
2007	Re-Evaluating Homosexuality: Extralegal Factors in Conservative Jewish Law	Social Studies
2007	Who's Producing Your Knowledge?: Filipina American Scholars	Social Studies

2006	"The Potential of Universality": Discovering Gender Fluidity Through Performance
2006	Coming Out of the Candlelight: Erasure, Politics, and Practice at the 2005 Boston Transgender Day of Remembrance
2006	May Our Daughters Return Home: Transnational Organizing to Halt Femicide in Ciudad Juarez
2006	She Let It Happen: An Analysis of Rape Myth Acceptance among Women	Anthropology
2006	"This is no time for the private point of view": Vexing the Confessional in the Poetry of Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton	History and Literature
2006	Relying on the Experts: The Hidden Motives of Tampon Manufacturers, Feminist Health Activists and the Medical Community During the American Toxic Shock Epidemic from 1978- 1982	History of Science
2006	(In)visibility: Identity Rights and Subjective Experience in Gay Beirut	Social Studies
2006	Popular Feminism in the Dominican Republic	Social Studies
2006	Redefining the 'Crisis in Citizenship': The Emergence of Immigrant Women as Political Actors in the United States	Social Studies
2006	The New Goddess: Women, Progress, and Patriarchy in the Hindu Nationalist Movement	Social Studies

2005	"Takin' Back the Night!" Buffy the Vampire Slayer and "Girl Power" Feminism
2005	Bread Winners or Bread Makers? The Professional Challenges for Working Women
2005	Power to the People! Or Not: The Exceptional Decrease in Women’s Formal and Informal Political Participation in Slovenia During Democratization
2005	To Whom Many Doors Are Still Locked: Gender, Space & Power in Harvard Final Clubs
2005	Coca Politics: Women's Leadership in the Chapare	Anthropology
2005	Redressing Prostitution: Trans Sex Work and the Fragmentation of Feminist Theories	Government
2005	The Media Coverage of Women, Ten Years Later, in the 108th Congress, Has Anything Changed Since 'The Year of the Women' in 1992	Government
2005	Divided Designs: Separatism, Intersectionality, and Feminist Science in the 1970s	History of Science
2005	Completing the Circle: Singing Women's Universality and the Music of Libana	Music
2005	Attitudes, Beliefs and Behavior Towards Gays and Lesbians	Psychology
2005	Beauty and Brains: The Influence of Stereotypical Portraits of Women on Implicit Cognition	Psychology
2005	"Rational Kitchens" How Scientific Kitchen Designs Reconfigured Domestic Space and Subjectivity from the White City to the New Frankfurt	Social Studies

2004	Begin By Imagining: Reflections of Women in the Holocaust
2004	Feminism within the Frame: An Analysis of Representations of Women in the Art of Americas Collection at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston	History of Art and Architecture
2004	The Fluid Body: Gender, Agency, and Embodiment in Chöd Ritual	Religion
2004	Parodic Patriotism and Ambivalent Assimilation: A Rereading of Mary Antin's The Promised Land	Romance Languages and Literatures
2004	Virgin, Mother, Warrior: The Virgin of Guadalupe as an Icon of the Anti- Abortion Movement	Romance Languages and Literatures
2004	Feminist Evolutions: An exploration and response to the disconnect between young women and contemporary dominant feminism	Social Studies
2004	Public Enemies: South Asian and Arab Americans Navigate Racialization and Cultural Citizenship After 9/11	Social Studies
2004	The Blue Stockinged Gal of Yesterday is Gone: Life-course Decision-making and Identity Formation of 1950s Radcliffe College Graduates	Social Studies

2003	At the Narrative Center of Gravity: Stories and Identities of Queer Women of Color
2003	Embodying the Psyche, Envisioning the Self: Race, Gender, and Psychology in Postwar American Women’s Fiction
2003	From Many Mouths to Her Mind: Pursuits of Selfhood, the American Woman, and the Self-Help Book
2003	Out of Love: The Permissibility of Abuse in Love and Self Development
2003	Promising Monsters, Perilous Motherhood: The Social Construction of 20th Century Multiple Births
2003	Sexing the Gender Dysphoric Body: A Developmental Examination of Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood
2003	The Specter of Homoeroticism: Recasting Castration in David Fincher's 'Fight Club'
2003	Women's Occupational Health: A Study of Latina Immigrant Janitors at Harvard	Biology
2003	Accidental Bodies	English
2003	Transformations in the Polish Female Gender Model from Communism to Democracy	History of Science
2003	Between Nation and World: Organizing Against Domestic Violence in China	Social Studies
2003	The Process of Becoming: Cultural Identity-Formation Among Second-Generation South Asian Women in the Contexts of Marriage and Family	Social Studies

2002	A Turn of the Page: Contemporary Women’s Reading Groups in America
2002	Bordering Home
2002	Canary in a Coal Mine: The Mixed Race Woman in American History and Literature
2002	Reflections in Yellow
2002	My Rights Don't Just Come to Me: Palestinian Women Negotiating Identity	Anthropology
2002	“Progressive Conservatism”: The Intersection of Boston Women's Involvement in Anti-Suffrage and Progressive Reform, 1908 - 1920	History
2002	“What Can a Woman Do?”: Gender, Youth, and Citizenship at Women's Colleges During World War I	History
2002	Building Strong Community: A Study of Queer Groups at Northeastern, Brandeis, and Harvard	Sociology

2001	Taking Care: Stereotypes, Medical Care, and HIV+ Women
2001	Of Tongues Untied: Stories Told and Retold by Working-Class Women
2001	On Display: Deconstructing Modes of Fashion Exhibition
2001	The Un-Candidates: Gender and Outsider Signals in Women's Political Advertisements
2001	Tugging at the Seams: Feminist Resistance in Pornography
2001	Witnessing Memory': Narrating the Realities of Immigrant and Refugee Women
2001	“La Revolution Tranquille”: Concubinage: The Renegotiation of Gender and the Deregulation of Conjugal Kinship in the Contemporary French Household	Anthropology
2001	What is “natural” about the menstrual cycle?	Anthropology
2001	Multi-Drug Resistance in Malaria: Identification and Characterization of a Putative ABC-Transporter in Plasmodium falciparum	Biology
2001	“We Was Girls Together”: The Role of Female Friendship in Nella Larsen's and Toni Morrison's	English
2001	Pom-Pom Power--The History of Cheerleading at Harvard	History
2001	Conception of Gender in Artificial Intelligence	History of Science
2001	“Hysterilization”: Hysterectomy as Sterilization in the 1970s United States	History of Science
2001	What's Blood Got to Do with It? Menarche, Menstrual Attitudes, Experiences, and Behaviors	Psychology
2001	Facing the Screen: Portrayals of Female Body Image on Websites for Teenagers	Sociology
2001	They're Not Those Kinds of Girls: The Absence of Physical Pleasure in Teenage Girls' Sexual Narratives	Sociology

2000	(Re)Writing Woman: Confronting Gender in the Czech Masculine Narrative
2000	“Like a Nuprin: Little, Yellow, Queer”: The Case for Queer Asian American Autobiofictional Performance
2000	Sex, Mothers, and Bodies: Chilean Sex Workers Voicing their Honor	Anthropology
2000	Mapping his Manila: Feminine Geographies of the City in Nick Joaquin's	English
2000	Precious Mettle: Margaret DeWitt, Susanna Townsend, and Mary Jane Megquier Negotiate Environment, Refinement & Femininity in Gold Rush California	History
2000	From to : Analyzing the Aesthetics of Spoken Word Poetry	History and Literature
2000	The Hymeneal Seal: Embodying Female Virginity in Early Modern England	History of Science
2000	Suit Her Up, She's Ready to Play: How the Woman-in-a-Suit Tackles Social Binaries	Social Studies

1999	"From the Bones of Memory": Women's Stories to the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission
1999	"When We Get Married, We'll Live Next Door to Each Other": Adolescence, Girl-Friends, and "Lesbian" Desires
1999	Healthy Bodies, Healthy Lives: The Women's Health Initiative and the Politics of Science
1999	Adah Isaacs Menken, The [Un]True Stories: History, Identity, Memory, Menken, and Me	Afro-American Studies
1999	Situated Science: Margaret Cavendish and Natural Philosophical Discourse	English
1999	From "Sympathizers" to Organizers: The Emergence of the Women's Liberation Movement from the New Left at Harvard-Radcliffe	History
1999	Re-(e)valu[ate/ing] Madonna: Understanding the Success of Post-Modernity's Greatest Diva	Music
1999	"Let's Not Change the Subject!": Deliberation on Abortion on the Web, in the House and in Abortion Dialogue Groups	Social Studies
1999	A Socialist-Feminist Re-vision: An Integration of Socialist Feminist and Psychoanalytic Accounts of Women's Oppression	Social Studies
1999	Common Visions, Differing Priorities, Challenging Dynamics: An Examination of a Low-Income Immigrant Women's Cooperative Project	Sociology

1998	"I Don't Want to Grow Up - If It's Like That": Carson McCullers's Construction of Female Adolescence and Women's Coming of Age
1998	Another Toxic Shock: Health Risks from Rayon and Dioxin in Chlorine Bleached Tampons Manufactured in the United States, a Public Policy Analysis
1998	Damned Beauties of the Roaring Twenties: The Death of Young, White, Urban, American Women and
1998	Just Saying No? A Closer Look at the Messages of Three Sexual Abstinence Programs
1998	The Cost of Making Money: Exploring the Dissociative Tendencies of College Educated Strippers
1998	Whose Sexuality? Masochistic Sexual Fantasies and Notions of Feminist Subjectivity
1998	That Takes Balls…or Does it? A Historical and Endocrinologic Examination of the Relation of Androgens to Confidence in Males and Females	Anthropology
1998	black tar/and honey: Anne Sexton in Performance	English
1998	Redefining the Politics of Presence: The Case of Indian Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions	Government
1998	The Psychic Connection: The historical evolution of the psychic hotline in terms of gender, spirituality, and talk therapy	History
1998	Visions and Revisions of Love: and the Crisis of Heterosexual Romance	Visual and Environmental Studies

1997	"I Feel it in My Bones That You are Making History": The Life and Leadership of Pauli Murray
1997	"Reports from the Front: Welfare Mothers Up in Arms": A Case Study with Policy Implications
1997	All the Weapons I Carry 'Round with Me: Five Adult Women Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse Speak about Their Experiences with Impact Model Mugging
1997	: Manufacturing Multiplicity from American Fashion Magazines
1997	Listening to Stories of Prison: The HIV Epidemic in MCI-Framingham
1997	The Communicating Wire: Bell Telephone, Farm Wives, and the Struggle for Rural Telephone Service
1997	When I Grow Up I Want to Be a Good Girl: Adolescent Fiction and Patriarchal Notions of Womanhood
1997	Out of the Courtroom and onto the Ballot: The Politicization of the 1930s and '40s Massachusetts Birth Control Movement	History
1997	"The Role For Which God Created Them": Women in the United States' Religious Right	Social Studies
1997	Potent Vulnerability: American Jewry and the Romance with Diaspora	Social Studies

1996	"I Certainly Try and Make the Most of it": An Exploratory Study of Teenage Mothers Who Have Remained in High School
1996	In Their Own Words: Life and Love in the Literary Transactions of Adolescent Girls
1996	Math/Theory: Constructing a Feminist Epistemology of Mathematics
1996	Mirror, Mirror on the Wall…" Nella Larsen, Alice Walker, and the Self-Representation of Black Female Sexuality
1996	Racial Iconography and Feminist Film: A Cultural Critique of Independent Women's Cinema
1996	Real Plums in an Imaginary Cake: Mary McCarthy and the Writing of Autobiography
1996	Single-Mother Poverty: A Critical Analysis of Current Welfare Theory and Policy from a Feminist, Cultural Perspective
1996	Intra-household Resource Allocations in South Africa: Is There a Gender Bias?	Economics
1996	Vision and Revision: The Naked Body and the Borders of Sex and Gender	English
1996	Are Abusive Men Different? And Can We Predict Their Behavior?	Psychology
1996	Racial Iconography and Feminist Film: A Cultural Critique of Independent Women's Cinema	Visual and Environmental Studies

1995	"What Does a Girl Do?": Teenage Girls' Voices in the Girl Group Music of the 1950s and '60s
1995	Continuing the Struggle: Gender Equality in an Egalitarian Community
1995	Elements of Community: Re-entering the Landscape of Utah Mormonism
1995	Loving and Living Surrealism: Reuniting Leonora Carrington and Max Ernst
1995	Reading the Body: The Physiological Politics of Gender in Charlotte Bronte's , Margaret Oliphant's , and Mary Braddon's
1995	Searching for a Place Apart: A Journey into and out of Bulimia Nervosa
1995	The Flagstad Case
1995	The Sound Factory
1995	Visual Strategies of the Contemporary U.S. Abortion Conflict
1995	Working Women, Legitimate Lives: The Gender Values Underlying 1994 Welfare Reform
1995	The Hormone Replacement Therapy Decision: Women at the Crossroads of Women's Health	Anthropology
1995	The Economic Consequences of Domestic Violence	Economics
1995	"It's My Skin": Gender, Pathology, and the Jewish Body in Holocaust Narratives	English
1995	Essentialist Tensions: Feminist Theories of the "Maleness" of Philosophy	Philosophy

1994	Differences Among Friends: International feminists, USAID, and Nigerian women
1994	Helke Sander and the Roots of Change: Gaining a Foothold for Women Filmmakers in Postwar Germany
1994	On Dorothy Allison's and Literary Theory on Pain and Witnessing
1994	Redefining : A Study of Chicana Identity and the Malinche Image
1994	The Feminist Critique of the Birth Control Pill
1994	The Re-visited: Women Villains in Contemporary Hollywood Cinema
1994	The Framings of Ethel Rosenberg: Gender, Law, Politics, and Culture in Cold War America
1994	Tradition and Transgression: Gender Roles in Ballroom Dancing
1994	When Pregnancy is a Crime: Addiction, Pregnancy and the Law
1994	Strategic Sentiments: Javanese Women and the Anthropology of Emotion	Anthropology
1994	Engendering Bodies in Pain: Trauma and Silence in Dorothy Allison's	English
1994	The Flowers of Middle Summer	English
1994	Conceptions of Self, Relationships and Gender Roles in Japanese American Women in California and Hawaii	Psychology

1993	Bad Mothers and Wicked (wo)Men: Facts and Fictions about Serial Killers
1993	Child of Imagination: Literary Analysis of Woolf, Steedman, Rich & Gilligan
1993	Gender Roles on Trial During the Reign of Terror
1993	Grief and Rage: The Politics of Death and the Political Implications of Mourning
1993	Jewels in the Net: Women Bringing Relation into the Light of American Buddhist Practice
1993	Mamas Fighting for Freedom in Kenya
1993	Rethinking "Feminine Wiles": Sexuality and Subversion in the Fiction of Jane Bowles
1993	Sexing the Machine: Feminism, Technology, and Postmodernism
1993	Sisterhood is Robin? The Politics of the Woman-Centered Feminist Discourse in the New Ms. Magazine
1993	"Thank God for Technology!" Taking a Second Look at the Technocratic Birth Experience
1993	Where She Slept These Many Years
1993	Women's Narratives of Anger: Exploring the Relationship between Anger and Self
1993	Edith Wharton's : Gendered Paradoxes and Resistance to Representation	English
1993	Sociocognitive and Motivational Influences on Gender-Linked Conduct	Psychology

1992	Conceptions of the Female Self: A Struggle Between Dominant and Resistant Forces
1992	Objectified Subjects: Women in AIDS Clinical Drug Trials
1992	Re-membering the American Dream: Woman in the Process of Placing a Beam in a Bag
1992	: Voices of Resistance
1992	Women and War
1992	Women of the Cloister, Women of the World: American Benedictines in Transition
1992	The Changing Lives of Palestinian Women in the Galilee: Reflections on Some Aspects of Modernization by Three Generations	Anthropology
1992	Blending the Spectrum: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Women and HIV Disease	Biology
1992	Maestra: Five Female Orchestral Conductors in the United States	Music
1992	Negotiating Identity: Multiracial People Challenging the Discourse	Social Studies
1992	Pain, Privacy, and Photography: Approaches to Picturing the Experiences of Battered Women	Visual and Environmental Studies

1991	Incest and the Denial of Paternal Fallibility in Psychoanalysis and Feminist Theory
1991	Sex and the Ivory Girl: Judy Blume Speaks to the Erotics of Disembodiment in Adolescent Girls' Discourses of Sexual Desire
1991	Women's Secrets, Feminine Desires: Narrative Hiding and Revealing in Frances Burney's , Emily Bronte's , and Mary Braddon's
1991	Workers, Mothers and Working Mothers: The Politics of Fetal Protection in the Workplace
1991	Appalachian Identity: A Contested Discourse	Anthropology
1991	Half-Baked in Botswana: Why Cookstoves Aren't Heating Up the Kitchen	Economics
1991	"Management of Men": Political Wives in British Parliamentary Politics, 1846-1867	History
1991	re:Visions of Feminism: An Analysis of Contemporary Film and Video Directed by Asian American Women	Social Studies

1990	A Mini-Revolution: hemlines, gender identity, and the 1960s
1990	Feeding Women and Children First: A Study of the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants and Children
1990	On Refracting a Voice: Readings of Tatiana Tolstaia
1990	Private Lives in Public Spaces: Marie Stopes, The Mothers' Clinics, and the Practice of Contraception
1990	: Meaning and Community Re-orient/ed
1990	With Child: Women's Experiences of Childbirth from Personal, Historical, and Cultural Perspectives
1990	Representing "Miss Lizzie": Class and Gender in the Borden Case	History and Literature
1990	Seductive Strategies: Towards an Interactive Model of Consumerism	History and Literature
1990	Nancy Chodorow's Theory Examined: Contraceptive Use Among Sexually Active Adolescents	Psychology
1990	Choosing Sides: Massachusetts Activists Formulate Opinions on the Abortion Issue	Social Studies

1989	Influence of Early Hollywood Films on Women's Roles in America
1989	Rethinking Sex and Gender in a World of Women without Men: Changing Consciousness and Incorporation of the Feminine in Three Utopias by Women
1989	A Different Voice in Politics: Women As Elites	Government
1989	The Lady Teaches Well: Middle-Class Women and the Sunday School Movement in England, 1780-1830	History
1989	The Analytical Muse: Historiography, Gender and Science in the Life of Lady Ada Lovelace	History of Science
1989	The Tragic Part of Happiness: The Construction of the Subject in	Literatures
1989	The Ideology of Gender Roles in Contemporary Mormonism: Feminist Reform and Traditional Reaction	Religion

1988	La fonction génératrice: French Feminism, Motherhood, and Legal Reform, 1880-1914.

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Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Sociologists of sex, gender, and sexuality explore changing gender relations, sexual practices, inequalities, and identities across national boundaries..

Read some of the works of our researchers:

Musto, Michela (2019). Brilliant or Bad: The Gendered Social Construction of Exceptionalism in Early Adolescence . American Sociological Review .
Pyne, Jaymes and Michela Musto (2022). A gendered and racialized educational hierarchy: Disparities in elementary school teachers’ perceptions of student behavior . Social Forces .
Qian, Yue and Jill E. Yavorsky (2021). The under-utilization of Women’s talent: Academic achievement and future leadership positions . Social Forces .

Sexualities

Ghaziani, Amin (2021). Why gayborhoods matter: the street empirics of urban sexualities . In A. Bitterman and D. B. Hess (eds.), The Life and Afterlife of Gay Neighborhoods , The Urban Book Series.
Karimi, Aryan (2020). The role of intimate relationship status, sexuality, and ethnicity in doing fieldwork among sexual–racial minority refugees: An intersectional methodology . Sociological Inquiry.
Karimi, Ahmad (2021). Sexuality and integration: a case of gay Iranian refugees’ collective memories and integration practices in Canada . Ethnic and Racial Studies .
Qian, Yue , Yang Shen and Manlin Cai (2022). Gendered age preferences for potential partners: a mixed-methods study among online daters in Shanghai . Chinese Sociological Review .
Silva, Tony (2019). Straight identity and same-sex desire: Conservatism, homophobia, and straight culture . Social Forces .
Silva, Tony and Clare R Evans (2020). “ How do adolescent social determinants and social contexts shape adult sexual identification? ” Social Problems .
Read a Q&A with Dr. Silva here .
Silva, Tony (2022). Heterosexual identification and same-sex partnering: Prevalence and attitudinal characteristics in the USA . Archives of Sexual Behavior.
Silva, Tony (2022). Subcultural identification, penetration practices, masculinity, and gender labels within a nationally representative sample of three cohorts of American Black, White, and Latina/o LGBQ people . Archives of Sexual Behavior .

Social Movements

Ghaziani, Amin (2021). People, protest and place: Advancing research on the emplacement of LGBTQ+ urban activisms . Urban Studies .
Nelson, Laura (2021). Leveraging the alignment between machine learning and intersectionality: Using word embeddings to measure intersectional experiences of the nineteenth century US South . Poetics .
Nelson, Laura (2022). The inequality of intersectionalities in Chicago’s first-wave women’s movement . Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society .
Nelson, Laura, Rebekah Getman and Syed Arefinul Haque (2022). And the rest is history: Measuring the scope and recall of Wikipedia’s coverage of three women’s movement subgroups . Sociological Methods & Research.
Cooky, Cheryl, Michael A Messner & Michela Musto (2022). The gender in televised sports study. Mapping the Social Landscape: Readings in Sociology .
Michela Musto , Cheryl Cooky & Michael A Messner (2017). “From fizzle to sizzle!” Televised sports news and the production of gender-bland sexism . Gender & Society .
Travers & Jennifer Berdahl (2021). Wrestling with jello: “Good Dads” and the reproduction of male dominance in children’s baseball . Sociology of Sport Journal .

Work and Family

Berdahl, Jennifer et al. (2018). Work as a masculinity contest . Journal of Social Issues .
Berdahl, Jennifer and Barnini Bhattacharyya (2021). Four ways forward in studying sex-based harassment . Equality, Diversity and Inclusion .
Bhattacharyya, Barnini & Jennifer Berdahl (2023). Do you see me? An inductive examination of differences between women of color’s experiences of and responses to invisibility at work . Journal of Applied Psychology.
Fuller, Sylvia and C. Elizabeth Hirsh (2019). ‘ Family friendly’ jobs and motherhood career penalties: The impact of flexible work arrangements across the educational spectrum . Work and Occupations .
Fuller, Sylvia and Yue Qian (2021). Parenthood, gender, and the risks and consequences of job loss . Social Forces .
Fuller, Sylvia and Yue Qian (2021). COVID-19 and the gender gap in employment among parents of young children in Canada . Gender & Society.
Hanser, Amy and Yue Qian (2022). Pregnant under quarantine: Women's agency and access to medical care under Wuhan's COVID-19 lockdown . SSM - Qualitative Research in Health.
Hershcovis, Sandy, Ivanna Vranjes, Jennifer Berdahl and Lilia Cortina (2021). See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil: Theorizing network silence around sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology .
Hirsh, C. Elizabeth , Christina Treleavin , and Sylvia Fuller (2020). Caregivers, gender, and the law: An analysis of family responsibility discrimination . Gender and Society .
Qian, Yue and Yang Hu (2021). Couples' changing work patterns in the United Kingdom and the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic . Gender, Work & Organization .
Wen, Fan and Yue Qian (2021). Constellations of gender ideology, earnings arrangements, and marital satisfaction: a comparison across four East Asian societies . Asian Population Studies .
Yavorsky, Jill E. and Yue Qian (2021). The gendered pandemic: The implications of COVID-19 for work and family . Sociology Compass .

We offer the following undergraduate courses covering Sex, Gender, and Sexuality:

212: Introduction to Gender (currently in development)
312: Gender Relations
314: Sociology of Masculinity
369: Sociology of Sexualities
414: Feminist Theory
469: Queer Theory and Politics

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality Research News

Welcome to our new graduate students for 2024w, gendering digital labor: prof. yue qian analyses work and family digital communication across 29 countries, queer nightlife and the pursuit of joy: prof. amin ghaziani on alumniubc’s from here forward podcast, about this research area:.

Sociologists of gender and sexuality explore changing gender relations and sexual identities within historical and contemporary contexts across national boundaries.

A central theme within feminist sociology, the exploration of intersectionality, recognizes the mutually constitutive character of social processes, structures and identities (e.g., through race, class and gender).

An example of research by faculty in this field is the examination of gender differences in settlement experiences among immigrants and refugees.

Sexual politics, communities and identities

Pivotal to this field of inquiry is the examination of queerness—lesbian, bisexual, trans, intersexed, pansexual—past and present, in addition to the social construction of heteronormativity and heterosexual non-conformity.

Examples of research by faculty in this area include burlesque, striptease, neo-burlesque, industries of sex workers and sex-related social movements.

Gender, youth and aging

This area of expertise excavates the transformation of gender over time, space and the life course.

Examples of research by faculty include the complexities of ‘girl cultures’, school-based youth cultures and care-giving for the elderly.

Gender and work

Some sociologists of gender analyze processes of globalization, the segregation of the labour force, unionization and social policy.

Examples of such research include struggles for pay equity, service work and consumer culture, and single parenting in neo-liberal contexts.

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator

Contributed equally to this work with: Paola Belingheri, Filippo Chiarello, Andrea Fronzetti Colladon, Paola Rovelli

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Energia, dei Sistemi, del Territorio e delle Costruzioni, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Largo L. Lazzarino, Pisa, Italy

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy, Department of Management, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Faculty of Economics and Management, Centre for Family Business Management, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen-Bolzano, Italy

Paola Belingheri,
Filippo Chiarello,
Andrea Fronzetti Colladon,
Paola Rovelli

Published: September 21, 2021
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474
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9 Nov 2021: The PLOS ONE Staff (2021) Correction: Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator. PLOS ONE 16(11): e0259930. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259930 View correction

Gender equality is a major problem that places women at a disadvantage thereby stymieing economic growth and societal advancement. In the last two decades, extensive research has been conducted on gender related issues, studying both their antecedents and consequences. However, existing literature reviews fail to provide a comprehensive and clear picture of what has been studied so far, which could guide scholars in their future research. Our paper offers a scoping review of a large portion of the research that has been published over the last 22 years, on gender equality and related issues, with a specific focus on business and economics studies. Combining innovative methods drawn from both network analysis and text mining, we provide a synthesis of 15,465 scientific articles. We identify 27 main research topics, we measure their relevance from a semantic point of view and the relationships among them, highlighting the importance of each topic in the overall gender discourse. We find that prominent research topics mostly relate to women in the workforce–e.g., concerning compensation, role, education, decision-making and career progression. However, some of them are losing momentum, and some other research trends–for example related to female entrepreneurship, leadership and participation in the board of directors–are on the rise. Besides introducing a novel methodology to review broad literature streams, our paper offers a map of the main gender-research trends and presents the most popular and the emerging themes, as well as their intersections, outlining important avenues for future research.

Citation: Belingheri P, Chiarello F, Fronzetti Colladon A, Rovelli P (2021) Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator. PLoS ONE 16(9): e0256474. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474

Editor: Elisa Ughetto, Politecnico di Torino, ITALY

Received: June 25, 2021; Accepted: August 6, 2021; Published: September 21, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Belingheri et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its supporting information files. The only exception is the text of the abstracts (over 15,000) that we have downloaded from Scopus. These abstracts can be retrieved from Scopus, but we do not have permission to redistribute them.

Funding: P.B and F.C.: Grant of the Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction of the University of Pisa (DESTEC) for the project “Measuring Gender Bias with Semantic Analysis: The Development of an Assessment Tool and its Application in the European Space Industry. P.B., F.C., A.F.C., P.R.: Grant of the Italian Association of Management Engineering (AiIG), “Misure di sostegno ai soci giovani AiIG” 2020, for the project “Gender Equality Through Data Intelligence (GEDI)”. F.C.: EU project ASSETs+ Project (Alliance for Strategic Skills addressing Emerging Technologies in Defence) EAC/A03/2018 - Erasmus+ programme, Sector Skills Alliances, Lot 3: Sector Skills Alliance for implementing a new strategic approach (Blueprint) to sectoral cooperation on skills G.A. NUMBER: 612678-EPP-1-2019-1-IT-EPPKA2-SSA-B.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The persistent gender inequalities that currently exist across the developed and developing world are receiving increasing attention from economists, policymakers, and the general public [e.g., 1 – 3 ]. Economic studies have indicated that women’s education and entry into the workforce contributes to social and economic well-being [e.g., 4 , 5 ], while their exclusion from the labor market and from managerial positions has an impact on overall labor productivity and income per capita [ 6 , 7 ]. The United Nations selected gender equality, with an emphasis on female education, as part of the Millennium Development Goals [ 8 ], and gender equality at-large as one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030 [ 9 ]. These latter objectives involve not only developing nations, but rather all countries, to achieve economic, social and environmental well-being.

As is the case with many SDGs, gender equality is still far from being achieved and persists across education, access to opportunities, or presence in decision-making positions [ 7 , 10 , 11 ]. As we enter the last decade for the SDGs’ implementation, and while we are battling a global health pandemic, effective and efficient action becomes paramount to reach this ambitious goal.

Scholars have dedicated a massive effort towards understanding gender equality, its determinants, its consequences for women and society, and the appropriate actions and policies to advance women’s equality. Many topics have been covered, ranging from women’s education and human capital [ 12 , 13 ] and their role in society [e.g., 14 , 15 ], to their appointment in firms’ top ranked positions [e.g., 16 , 17 ] and performance implications [e.g., 18 , 19 ]. Despite some attempts, extant literature reviews provide a narrow view on these issues, restricted to specific topics–e.g., female students’ presence in STEM fields [ 20 ], educational gender inequality [ 5 ], the gender pay gap [ 21 ], the glass ceiling effect [ 22 ], leadership [ 23 ], entrepreneurship [ 24 ], women’s presence on the board of directors [ 25 , 26 ], diversity management [ 27 ], gender stereotypes in advertisement [ 28 ], or specific professions [ 29 ]. A comprehensive view on gender-related research, taking stock of key findings and under-studied topics is thus lacking.

Extant literature has also highlighted that gender issues, and their economic and social ramifications, are complex topics that involve a large number of possible antecedents and outcomes [ 7 ]. Indeed, gender equality actions are most effective when implemented in unison with other SDGs (e.g., with SDG 8, see [ 30 ]) in a synergetic perspective [ 10 ]. Many bodies of literature (e.g., business, economics, development studies, sociology and psychology) approach the problem of achieving gender equality from different perspectives–often addressing specific and narrow aspects. This sometimes leads to a lack of clarity about how different issues, circumstances, and solutions may be related in precipitating or mitigating gender inequality or its effects. As the number of papers grows at an increasing pace, this issue is exacerbated and there is a need to step back and survey the body of gender equality literature as a whole. There is also a need to examine synergies between different topics and approaches, as well as gaps in our understanding of how different problems and solutions work together. Considering the important topic of women’s economic and social empowerment, this paper aims to fill this gap by answering the following research question: what are the most relevant findings in the literature on gender equality and how do they relate to each other ?

To do so, we conduct a scoping review [ 31 ], providing a synthesis of 15,465 articles dealing with gender equity related issues published in the last twenty-two years, covering both the periods of the MDGs and the SDGs (i.e., 2000 to mid 2021) in all the journals indexed in the Academic Journal Guide’s 2018 ranking of business and economics journals. Given the huge amount of research conducted on the topic, we adopt an innovative methodology, which relies on social network analysis and text mining. These techniques are increasingly adopted when surveying large bodies of text. Recently, they were applied to perform analysis of online gender communication differences [ 32 ] and gender behaviors in online technology communities [ 33 ], to identify and classify sexual harassment instances in academia [ 34 ], and to evaluate the gender inclusivity of disaster management policies [ 35 ].

Applied to the title, abstracts and keywords of the articles in our sample, this methodology allows us to identify a set of 27 recurrent topics within which we automatically classify the papers. Introducing additional novelty, by means of the Semantic Brand Score (SBS) indicator [ 36 ] and the SBS BI app [ 37 ], we assess the importance of each topic in the overall gender equality discourse and its relationships with the other topics, as well as trends over time, with a more accurate description than that offered by traditional literature reviews relying solely on the number of papers presented in each topic.

This methodology, applied to gender equality research spanning the past twenty-two years, enables two key contributions. First, we extract the main message that each document is conveying and how this is connected to other themes in literature, providing a rich picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the emerging topics. Second, by examining the semantic relationship between topics and how tightly their discourses are linked, we can identify the key relationships and connections between different topics. This semi-automatic methodology is also highly reproducible with minimum effort.

This literature review is organized as follows. In the next section, we present how we selected relevant papers and how we analyzed them through text mining and social network analysis. We then illustrate the importance of 27 selected research topics, measured by means of the SBS indicator. In the results section, we present an overview of the literature based on the SBS results–followed by an in-depth narrative analysis of the top 10 topics (i.e., those with the highest SBS) and their connections. Subsequently, we highlight a series of under-studied connections between the topics where there is potential for future research. Through this analysis, we build a map of the main gender-research trends in the last twenty-two years–presenting the most popular themes. We conclude by highlighting key areas on which research should focused in the future.

Our aim is to map a broad topic, gender equality research, that has been approached through a host of different angles and through different disciplines. Scoping reviews are the most appropriate as they provide the freedom to map different themes and identify literature gaps, thereby guiding the recommendation of new research agendas [ 38 ].

Several practical approaches have been proposed to identify and assess the underlying topics of a specific field using big data [ 39 – 41 ], but many of them fail without proper paper retrieval and text preprocessing. This is specifically true for a research field such as the gender-related one, which comprises the work of scholars from different backgrounds. In this section, we illustrate a novel approach for the analysis of scientific (gender-related) papers that relies on methods and tools of social network analysis and text mining. Our procedure has four main steps: (1) data collection, (2) text preprocessing, (3) keywords extraction and classification, and (4) evaluation of semantic importance and image.

Data collection

In this study, we analyze 22 years of literature on gender-related research. Following established practice for scoping reviews [ 42 ], our data collection consisted of two main steps, which we summarize here below.

Firstly, we retrieved from the Scopus database all the articles written in English that contained the term “gender” in their title, abstract or keywords and were published in a journal listed in the Academic Journal Guide 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS) ( https://charteredabs.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/AJG2018-Methodology.pdf ), considering the time period from Jan 2000 to May 2021. We used this information considering that abstracts, titles and keywords represent the most informative part of a paper, while using the full-text would increase the signal-to-noise ratio for information extraction. Indeed, these textual elements already demonstrated to be reliable sources of information for the task of domain lexicon extraction [ 43 , 44 ]. We chose Scopus as source of literature because of its popularity, its update rate, and because it offers an API to ease the querying process. Indeed, while it does not allow to retrieve the full text of scientific articles, the Scopus API offers access to titles, abstracts, citation information and metadata for all its indexed scholarly journals. Moreover, we decided to focus on the journals listed in the AJG 2018 ranking because we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies only. The AJG is indeed widely used by universities and business schools as a reference point for journal and research rigor and quality. This first step, executed in June 2021, returned more than 55,000 papers.

In the second step–because a look at the papers showed very sparse results, many of which were not in line with the topic of this literature review (e.g., papers dealing with health care or medical issues, where the word gender indicates the gender of the patients)–we applied further inclusion criteria to make the sample more focused on the topic of this literature review (i.e., women’s gender equality issues). Specifically, we only retained those papers mentioning, in their title and/or abstract, both gender-related keywords (e.g., daughter, female, mother) and keywords referring to bias and equality issues (e.g., equality, bias, diversity, inclusion). After text pre-processing (see next section), keywords were first identified from a frequency-weighted list of words found in the titles, abstracts and keywords in the initial list of papers, extracted through text mining (following the same approach as [ 43 ]). They were selected by two of the co-authors independently, following respectively a bottom up and a top-down approach. The bottom-up approach consisted of examining the words found in the frequency-weighted list and classifying those related to gender and equality. The top-down approach consisted in searching in the word list for notable gender and equality-related words. Table 1 reports the sets of keywords we considered, together with some examples of words that were used to search for their presence in the dataset (a full list is provided in the S1 Text ). At end of this second step, we obtained a final sample of 15,465 relevant papers.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.t001

Text processing and keyword extraction

Text preprocessing aims at structuring text into a form that can be analyzed by statistical models. In the present section, we describe the preprocessing steps we applied to paper titles and abstracts, which, as explained below, partially follow a standard text preprocessing pipeline [ 45 ]. These activities have been performed using the R package udpipe [ 46 ].

The first step is n-gram extraction (i.e., a sequence of words from a given text sample) to identify which n-grams are important in the analysis, since domain-specific lexicons are often composed by bi-grams and tri-grams [ 47 ]. Multi-word extraction is usually implemented with statistics and linguistic rules, thus using the statistical properties of n-grams or machine learning approaches [ 48 ]. However, for the present paper, we used Scopus metadata in order to have a more effective and efficient n-grams collection approach [ 49 ]. We used the keywords of each paper in order to tag n-grams with their associated keywords automatically. Using this greedy approach, it was possible to collect all the keywords listed by the authors of the papers. From this list, we extracted only keywords composed by two, three and four words, we removed all the acronyms and rare keywords (i.e., appearing in less than 1% of papers), and we clustered keywords showing a high orthographic similarity–measured using a Levenshtein distance [ 50 ] lower than 2, considering these groups of keywords as representing same concepts, but expressed with different spelling. After tagging the n-grams in the abstracts, we followed a common data preparation pipeline that consists of the following steps: (i) tokenization, that splits the text into tokens (i.e., single words and previously tagged multi-words); (ii) removal of stop-words (i.e. those words that add little meaning to the text, usually being very common and short functional words–such as “and”, “or”, or “of”); (iii) parts-of-speech tagging, that is providing information concerning the morphological role of a word and its morphosyntactic context (e.g., if the token is a determiner, the next token is a noun or an adjective with very high confidence, [ 51 ]); and (iv) lemmatization, which consists in substituting each word with its dictionary form (or lemma). The output of the latter step allows grouping together the inflected forms of a word. For example, the verbs “am”, “are”, and “is” have the shared lemma “be”, or the nouns “cat” and “cats” both share the lemma “cat”. We preferred lemmatization over stemming [ 52 ] in order to obtain more interpretable results.

In addition, we identified a further set of keywords (with respect to those listed in the “keywords” field) by applying a series of automatic words unification and removal steps, as suggested in past research [ 53 , 54 ]. We removed: sparse terms (i.e., occurring in less than 0.1% of all documents), common terms (i.e., occurring in more than 10% of all documents) and retained only nouns and adjectives. It is relevant to notice that no document was lost due to these steps. We then used the TF-IDF function [ 55 ] to produce a new list of keywords. We additionally tested other approaches for the identification and clustering of keywords–such as TextRank [ 56 ] or Latent Dirichlet Allocation [ 57 ]–without obtaining more informative results.

Classification of research topics

To guide the literature analysis, two experts met regularly to examine the sample of collected papers and to identify the main topics and trends in gender research. Initially, they conducted brainstorming sessions on the topics they expected to find, due to their knowledge of the literature. This led to an initial list of topics. Subsequently, the experts worked independently, also supported by the keywords in paper titles and abstracts extracted with the procedure described above.

Considering all this information, each expert identified and clustered relevant keywords into topics. At the end of the process, the two assignments were compared and exhibited a 92% agreement. Another meeting was held to discuss discordant cases and reach a consensus. This resulted in a list of 27 topics, briefly introduced in Table 2 and subsequently detailed in the following sections.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.t002

Evaluation of semantic importance

Working on the lemmatized corpus of the 15,465 papers included in our sample, we proceeded with the evaluation of semantic importance trends for each topic and with the analysis of their connections and prevalent textual associations. To this aim, we used the Semantic Brand Score indicator [ 36 ], calculated through the SBS BI webapp [ 37 ] that also produced a brand image report for each topic. For this study we relied on the computing resources of the ENEA/CRESCO infrastructure [ 58 ].

The Semantic Brand Score (SBS) is a measure of semantic importance that combines methods of social network analysis and text mining. It is usually applied for the analysis of (big) textual data to evaluate the importance of one or more brands, names, words, or sets of keywords [ 36 ]. Indeed, the concept of “brand” is intended in a flexible way and goes beyond products or commercial brands. In this study, we evaluate the SBS time-trends of the keywords defining the research topics discussed in the previous section. Semantic importance comprises the three dimensions of topic prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Prevalence measures how frequently a research topic is used in the discourse. The more a topic is mentioned by scientific articles, the more the research community will be aware of it, with possible increase of future studies; this construct is partly related to that of brand awareness [ 59 ]. This effect is even stronger, considering that we are analyzing the title, abstract and keywords of the papers, i.e. the parts that have the highest visibility. A very important characteristic of the SBS is that it considers the relationships among words in a text. Topic importance is not just a matter of how frequently a topic is mentioned, but also of the associations a topic has in the text. Specifically, texts are transformed into networks of co-occurring words, and relationships are studied through social network analysis [ 60 ]. This step is necessary to calculate the other two dimensions of our semantic importance indicator. Accordingly, a social network of words is generated for each time period considered in the analysis–i.e., a graph made of n nodes (words) and E edges weighted by co-occurrence frequency, with W being the set of edge weights. The keywords representing each topic were clustered into single nodes.

The construct of diversity relates to that of brand image [ 59 ], in the sense that it considers the richness and distinctiveness of textual (topic) associations. Considering the above-mentioned networks, we calculated diversity using the distinctiveness centrality metric–as in the formula presented by Fronzetti Colladon and Naldi [ 61 ].

Lastly, connectivity was measured as the weighted betweenness centrality [ 62 , 63 ] of each research topic node. We used the formula presented by Wasserman and Faust [ 60 ]. The dimension of connectivity represents the “brokerage power” of each research topic–i.e., how much it can serve as a bridge to connect other terms (and ultimately topics) in the discourse [ 36 ].

The SBS is the final composite indicator obtained by summing the standardized scores of prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Standardization was carried out considering all the words in the corpus, for each specific timeframe.

This methodology, applied to a large and heterogeneous body of text, enables to automatically identify two important sets of information that add value to the literature review. Firstly, the relevance of each topic in literature is measured through a composite indicator of semantic importance, rather than simply looking at word frequencies. This provides a much richer picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the topics that are emerging in the literature. Secondly, it enables to examine the extent of the semantic relationship between topics, looking at how tightly their discourses are linked. In a field such as gender equality, where many topics are closely linked to each other and present overlaps in issues and solutions, this methodology offers a novel perspective with respect to traditional literature reviews. In addition, it ensures reproducibility over time and the possibility to semi-automatically update the analysis, as new papers become available.

Overview of main topics

In terms of descriptive textual statistics, our corpus is made of 15,465 text documents, consisting of a total of 2,685,893 lemmatized tokens (words) and 32,279 types. As a result, the type-token ratio is 1.2%. The number of hapaxes is 12,141, with a hapax-token ratio of 37.61%.

Fig 1 shows the list of 27 topics by decreasing SBS. The most researched topic is compensation , exceeding all others in prevalence, diversity, and connectivity. This means it is not only mentioned more often than other topics, but it is also connected to a greater number of other topics and is central to the discourse on gender equality. The next four topics are, in order of SBS, role , education , decision-making , and career progression . These topics, except for education , all concern women in the workforce. Between these first five topics and the following ones there is a clear drop in SBS scores. In particular, the topics that follow have a lower connectivity than the first five. They are hiring , performance , behavior , organization , and human capital . Again, except for behavior and human capital , the other three topics are purely related to women in the workforce. After another drop-off, the following topics deal prevalently with women in society. This trend highlights that research on gender in business journals has so far mainly paid attention to the conditions that women experience in business contexts, while also devoting some attention to women in society.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g001

Fig 2 shows the SBS time series of the top 10 topics. While there has been a general increase in the number of Scopus-indexed publications in the last decade, we notice that some SBS trends remain steady, or even decrease. In particular, we observe that the main topic of the last twenty-two years, compensation , is losing momentum. Since 2016, it has been surpassed by decision-making , education and role , which may indicate that literature is increasingly attempting to identify root causes of compensation inequalities. Moreover, in the last two years, the topics of hiring , performance , and organization are experiencing the largest importance increase.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g002

Fig 3 shows the SBS time trends of the remaining 17 topics (i.e., those not in the top 10). As we can see from the graph, there are some that maintain a steady trend–such as reputation , management , networks and governance , which also seem to have little importance. More relevant topics with average stationary trends (except for the last two years) are culture , family , and parenting . The feminine topic is among the most important here, and one of those that exhibit the larger variations over time (similarly to leadership ). On the other hand, the are some topics that, even if not among the most important, show increasing SBS trends; therefore, they could be considered as emerging topics and could become popular in the near future. These are entrepreneurship , leadership , board of directors , and sustainability . These emerging topics are also interesting to anticipate future trends in gender equality research that are conducive to overall equality in society.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g003

In addition to the SBS score of the different topics, the network of terms they are associated to enables to gauge the extent to which their images (textual associations) overlap or differ ( Fig 4 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g004

There is a central cluster of topics with high similarity, which are all connected with women in the workforce. The cluster includes topics such as organization , decision-making , performance , hiring , human capital , education and compensation . In addition, the topic of well-being is found within this cluster, suggesting that women’s equality in the workforce is associated to well-being considerations. The emerging topics of entrepreneurship and leadership are also closely connected with each other, possibly implying that leadership is a much-researched quality in female entrepreneurship. Topics that are relatively more distant include personality , politics , feminine , empowerment , management , board of directors , reputation , governance , parenting , masculine and network .

The following sections describe the top 10 topics and their main associations in literature (see Table 3 ), while providing a brief overview of the emerging topics.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.t003

Compensation.

The topic of compensation is related to the topics of role , hiring , education and career progression , however, also sees a very high association with the words gap and inequality . Indeed, a well-known debate in degrowth economics centers around whether and how to adequately compensate women for their childbearing, childrearing, caregiver and household work [e.g., 30 ].

Even in paid work, women continue being offered lower compensations than their male counterparts who have the same job or cover the same role [ 64 – 67 ]. This severe inequality has been widely studied by scholars over the last twenty-two years. Dealing with this topic, some specific roles have been addressed. Specifically, research highlighted differences in compensation between female and male CEOs [e.g., 68 ], top executives [e.g., 69 ], and boards’ directors [e.g., 70 ]. Scholars investigated the determinants of these gaps, such as the gender composition of the board [e.g., 71 – 73 ] or women’s individual characteristics [e.g., 71 , 74 ].

Among these individual characteristics, education plays a relevant role [ 75 ]. Education is indeed presented as the solution for women, not only to achieve top executive roles, but also to reduce wage inequality [e.g., 76 , 77 ]. Past research has highlighted education influences on gender wage gaps, specifically referring to gender differences in skills [e.g., 78 ], college majors [e.g., 79 ], and college selectivity [e.g., 80 ].

Finally, the wage gap issue is strictly interrelated with hiring –e.g., looking at whether being a mother affects hiring and compensation [e.g., 65 , 81 ] or relating compensation to unemployment [e.g., 82 ]–and career progression –for instance looking at meritocracy [ 83 , 84 ] or the characteristics of the boss for whom women work [e.g., 85 ].

The roles covered by women have been deeply investigated. Scholars have focused on the role of women in their families and the society as a whole [e.g., 14 , 15 ], and, more widely, in business contexts [e.g., 18 , 81 ]. Indeed, despite still lagging behind their male counterparts [e.g., 86 , 87 ], in the last decade there has been an increase in top ranked positions achieved by women [e.g., 88 , 89 ]. Following this phenomenon, scholars have posed greater attention towards the presence of women in the board of directors [e.g., 16 , 18 , 90 , 91 ], given the increasing pressure to appoint female directors that firms, especially listed ones, have experienced. Other scholars have focused on the presence of women covering the role of CEO [e.g., 17 , 92 ] or being part of the top management team [e.g., 93 ]. Irrespectively of the level of analysis, all these studies tried to uncover the antecedents of women’s presence among top managers [e.g., 92 , 94 ] and the consequences of having a them involved in the firm’s decision-making –e.g., on performance [e.g., 19 , 95 , 96 ], risk [e.g., 97 , 98 ], and corporate social responsibility [e.g., 99 , 100 ].

Besides studying the difficulties and discriminations faced by women in getting a job [ 81 , 101 ], and, more specifically in the hiring , appointment, or career progression to these apical roles [e.g., 70 , 83 ], the majority of research of women’s roles dealt with compensation issues. Specifically, scholars highlight the pay-gap that still exists between women and men, both in general [e.g., 64 , 65 ], as well as referring to boards’ directors [e.g., 70 , 102 ], CEOs and executives [e.g., 69 , 103 , 104 ].

Finally, other scholars focused on the behavior of women when dealing with business. In this sense, particular attention has been paid to leadership and entrepreneurial behaviors. The former quite overlaps with dealing with the roles mentioned above, but also includes aspects such as leaders being stereotyped as masculine [e.g., 105 ], the need for greater exposure to female leaders to reduce biases [e.g., 106 ], or female leaders acting as queen bees [e.g., 107 ]. Regarding entrepreneurship , scholars mainly investigated women’s entrepreneurial entry [e.g., 108 , 109 ], differences between female and male entrepreneurs in the evaluations and funding received from investors [e.g., 110 , 111 ], and their performance gap [e.g., 112 , 113 ].

Education has long been recognized as key to social advancement and economic stability [ 114 ], for job progression and also a barrier to gender equality, especially in STEM-related fields. Research on education and gender equality is mostly linked with the topics of compensation , human capital , career progression , hiring , parenting and decision-making .

Education contributes to a higher human capital [ 115 ] and constitutes an investment on the part of women towards their future. In this context, literature points to the gender gap in educational attainment, and the consequences for women from a social, economic, personal and professional standpoint. Women are found to have less access to formal education and information, especially in emerging countries, which in turn may cause them to lose social and economic opportunities [e.g., 12 , 116 – 119 ]. Education in local and rural communities is also paramount to communicate the benefits of female empowerment , contributing to overall societal well-being [e.g., 120 ].

Once women access education, the image they have of the world and their place in society (i.e., habitus) affects their education performance [ 13 ] and is passed on to their children. These situations reinforce gender stereotypes, which become self-fulfilling prophecies that may negatively affect female students’ performance by lowering their confidence and heightening their anxiety [ 121 , 122 ]. Besides formal education, also the information that women are exposed to on a daily basis contributes to their human capital . Digital inequalities, for instance, stems from men spending more time online and acquiring higher digital skills than women [ 123 ].

Education is also a factor that should boost employability of candidates and thus hiring , career progression and compensation , however the relationship between these factors is not straightforward [ 115 ]. First, educational choices ( decision-making ) are influenced by variables such as self-efficacy and the presence of barriers, irrespectively of the career opportunities they offer, especially in STEM [ 124 ]. This brings additional difficulties to women’s enrollment and persistence in scientific and technical fields of study due to stereotypes and biases [ 125 , 126 ]. Moreover, access to education does not automatically translate into job opportunities for women and minority groups [ 127 , 128 ] or into female access to managerial positions [ 129 ].

Finally, parenting is reported as an antecedent of education [e.g., 130 ], with much of the literature focusing on the role of parents’ education on the opportunities afforded to children to enroll in education [ 131 – 134 ] and the role of parenting in their offspring’s perception of study fields and attitudes towards learning [ 135 – 138 ]. Parental education is also a predictor of the other related topics, namely human capital and compensation [ 139 ].

Decision-making.

This literature mainly points to the fact that women are thought to make decisions differently than men. Women have indeed different priorities, such as they care more about people’s well-being, working with people or helping others, rather than maximizing their personal (or their firm’s) gain [ 140 ]. In other words, women typically present more communal than agentic behaviors, which are instead more frequent among men [ 141 ]. These different attitude, behavior and preferences in turn affect the decisions they make [e.g., 142 ] and the decision-making of the firm in which they work [e.g., 143 ].

At the individual level, gender affects, for instance, career aspirations [e.g., 144 ] and choices [e.g., 142 , 145 ], or the decision of creating a venture [e.g., 108 , 109 , 146 ]. Moreover, in everyday life, women and men make different decisions regarding partners [e.g., 147 ], childcare [e.g., 148 ], education [e.g., 149 ], attention to the environment [e.g., 150 ] and politics [e.g., 151 ].

At the firm level, scholars highlighted, for example, how the presence of women in the board affects corporate decisions [e.g., 152 , 153 ], that female CEOs are more conservative in accounting decisions [e.g., 154 ], or that female CFOs tend to make more conservative decisions regarding the firm’s financial reporting [e.g., 155 ]. Nevertheless, firm level research also investigated decisions that, influenced by gender bias, affect women, such as those pertaining hiring [e.g., 156 , 157 ], compensation [e.g., 73 , 158 ], or the empowerment of women once appointed [ 159 ].

Career progression.

Once women have entered the workforce, the key aspect to achieve gender equality becomes career progression , including efforts toward overcoming the glass ceiling. Indeed, according to the SBS analysis, career progression is highly related to words such as work, social issues and equality. The topic with which it has the highest semantic overlap is role , followed by decision-making , hiring , education , compensation , leadership , human capital , and family .

Career progression implies an advancement in the hierarchical ladder of the firm, assigning managerial roles to women. Coherently, much of the literature has focused on identifying rationales for a greater female participation in the top management team and board of directors [e.g., 95 ] as well as the best criteria to ensure that the decision-makers promote the most valuable employees irrespectively of their individual characteristics, such as gender [e.g., 84 ]. The link between career progression , role and compensation is often provided in practice by performance appraisal exercises, frequently rooted in a culture of meritocracy that guides bonuses, salary increases and promotions. However, performance appraisals can actually mask gender-biased decisions where women are held to higher standards than their male colleagues [e.g., 83 , 84 , 95 , 160 , 161 ]. Women often have less opportunities to gain leadership experience and are less visible than their male colleagues, which constitute barriers to career advancement [e.g., 162 ]. Therefore, transparency and accountability, together with procedures that discourage discretionary choices, are paramount to achieve a fair career progression [e.g., 84 ], together with the relaxation of strict job boundaries in favor of cross-functional and self-directed tasks [e.g., 163 ].

In addition, a series of stereotypes about the type of leadership characteristics that are required for top management positions, which fit better with typical male and agentic attributes, are another key barrier to career advancement for women [e.g., 92 , 160 ].

Hiring is the entrance gateway for women into the workforce. Therefore, it is related to other workforce topics such as compensation , role , career progression , decision-making , human capital , performance , organization and education .

A first stream of literature focuses on the process leading up to candidates’ job applications, demonstrating that bias exists before positions are even opened, and it is perpetuated both by men and women through networking and gatekeeping practices [e.g., 164 , 165 ].

The hiring process itself is also subject to biases [ 166 ], for example gender-congruity bias that leads to men being preferred candidates in male-dominated sectors [e.g., 167 ], women being hired in positions with higher risk of failure [e.g., 168 ] and limited transparency and accountability afforded by written processes and procedures [e.g., 164 ] that all contribute to ascriptive inequality. In addition, providing incentives for evaluators to hire women may actually work to this end; however, this is not the case when supporting female candidates endangers higher-ranking male ones [ 169 ].

Another interesting perspective, instead, looks at top management teams’ composition and the effects on hiring practices, indicating that firms with more women in top management are less likely to lay off staff [e.g., 152 ].

Performance.

Several scholars posed their attention towards women’s performance, its consequences [e.g., 170 , 171 ] and the implications of having women in decision-making positions [e.g., 18 , 19 ].

At the individual level, research focused on differences in educational and academic performance between women and men, especially referring to the gender gap in STEM fields [e.g., 171 ]. The presence of stereotype threats–that is the expectation that the members of a social group (e.g., women) “must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype” [ 172 ]–affects women’s interested in STEM [e.g., 173 ], as well as their cognitive ability tests, penalizing them [e.g., 174 ]. A stronger gender identification enhances this gap [e.g., 175 ], whereas mentoring and role models can be used as solutions to this problem [e.g., 121 ]. Despite the negative effect of stereotype threats on girls’ performance [ 176 ], female and male students perform equally in mathematics and related subjects [e.g., 177 ]. Moreover, while individuals’ performance at school and university generally affects their achievements and the field in which they end up working, evidence reveals that performance in math or other scientific subjects does not explain why fewer women enter STEM working fields; rather this gap depends on other aspects, such as culture, past working experiences, or self-efficacy [e.g., 170 ]. Finally, scholars have highlighted the penalization that women face for their positive performance, for instance when they succeed in traditionally male areas [e.g., 178 ]. This penalization is explained by the violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions [e.g., 179 , 180 ], that is having women well performing in agentic areas, which are typical associated to men. Performance penalization can thus be overcome by clearly conveying communal characteristics and behaviors [ 178 ].

Evidence has been provided on how the involvement of women in boards of directors and decision-making positions affects firms’ performance. Nevertheless, results are mixed, with some studies showing positive effects on financial [ 19 , 181 , 182 ] and corporate social performance [ 99 , 182 , 183 ]. Other studies maintain a negative association [e.g., 18 ], and other again mixed [e.g., 184 ] or non-significant association [e.g., 185 ]. Also with respect to the presence of a female CEO, mixed results emerged so far, with some researches demonstrating a positive effect on firm’s performance [e.g., 96 , 186 ], while other obtaining only a limited evidence of this relationship [e.g., 103 ] or a negative one [e.g., 187 ].

Finally, some studies have investigated whether and how women’s performance affects their hiring [e.g., 101 ] and career progression [e.g., 83 , 160 ]. For instance, academic performance leads to different returns in hiring for women and men. Specifically, high-achieving men are called back significantly more often than high-achieving women, which are penalized when they have a major in mathematics; this result depends on employers’ gendered standards for applicants [e.g., 101 ]. Once appointed, performance ratings are more strongly related to promotions for women than men, and promoted women typically show higher past performance ratings than those of promoted men. This suggesting that women are subject to stricter standards for promotion [e.g., 160 ].

Behavioral aspects related to gender follow two main streams of literature. The first examines female personality and behavior in the workplace, and their alignment with cultural expectations or stereotypes [e.g., 188 ] as well as their impacts on equality. There is a common bias that depicts women as less agentic than males. Certain characteristics, such as those more congruent with male behaviors–e.g., self-promotion [e.g., 189 ], negotiation skills [e.g., 190 ] and general agentic behavior [e.g., 191 ]–, are less accepted in women. However, characteristics such as individualism in women have been found to promote greater gender equality in society [ 192 ]. In addition, behaviors such as display of emotions [e.g., 193 ], which are stereotypically female, work against women’s acceptance in the workplace, requiring women to carefully moderate their behavior to avoid exclusion. A counter-intuitive result is that women and minorities, which are more marginalized in the workplace, tend to be better problem-solvers in innovation competitions due to their different knowledge bases [ 194 ].

The other side of the coin is examined in a parallel literature stream on behavior towards women in the workplace. As a result of biases, prejudices and stereotypes, women may experience adverse behavior from their colleagues, such as incivility and harassment, which undermine their well-being [e.g., 195 , 196 ]. Biases that go beyond gender, such as for overweight people, are also more strongly applied to women [ 197 ].

Organization.

The role of women and gender bias in organizations has been studied from different perspectives, which mirror those presented in detail in the following sections. Specifically, most research highlighted the stereotypical view of leaders [e.g., 105 ] and the roles played by women within firms, for instance referring to presence in the board of directors [e.g., 18 , 90 , 91 ], appointment as CEOs [e.g., 16 ], or top executives [e.g., 93 ].

Scholars have investigated antecedents and consequences of the presence of women in these apical roles. On the one side they looked at hiring and career progression [e.g., 83 , 92 , 160 , 168 , 198 ], finding women typically disadvantaged with respect to their male counterparts. On the other side, they studied women’s leadership styles and influence on the firm’s decision-making [e.g., 152 , 154 , 155 , 199 ], with implications for performance [e.g., 18 , 19 , 96 ].

Human capital.

Human capital is a transverse topic that touches upon many different aspects of female gender equality. As such, it has the most associations with other topics, starting with education as mentioned above, with career-related topics such as role , decision-making , hiring , career progression , performance , compensation , leadership and organization . Another topic with which there is a close connection is behavior . In general, human capital is approached both from the education standpoint but also from the perspective of social capital.

The behavioral aspect in human capital comprises research related to gender differences for example in cultural and religious beliefs that influence women’s attitudes and perceptions towards STEM subjects [ 142 , 200 – 202 ], towards employment [ 203 ] or towards environmental issues [ 150 , 204 ]. These cultural differences also emerge in the context of globalization which may accelerate gender equality in the workforce [ 205 , 206 ]. Gender differences also appear in behaviors such as motivation [ 207 ], and in negotiation [ 190 ], and have repercussions on women’s decision-making related to their careers. The so-called gender equality paradox sees women in countries with lower gender equality more likely to pursue studies and careers in STEM fields, whereas the gap in STEM enrollment widens as countries achieve greater equality in society [ 171 ].

Career progression is modeled by literature as a choice-process where personal preferences, culture and decision-making affect the chosen path and the outcomes. Some literature highlights how women tend to self-select into different professions than men, often due to stereotypes rather than actual ability to perform in these professions [ 142 , 144 ]. These stereotypes also affect the perceptions of female performance or the amount of human capital required to equal male performance [ 110 , 193 , 208 ], particularly for mothers [ 81 ]. It is therefore often assumed that women are better suited to less visible and less leadership -oriented roles [ 209 ]. Women also express differing preferences towards work-family balance, which affect whether and how they pursue human capital gains [ 210 ], and ultimately their career progression and salary .

On the other hand, men are often unaware of gendered processes and behaviors that they carry forward in their interactions and decision-making [ 211 , 212 ]. Therefore, initiatives aimed at increasing managers’ human capital –by raising awareness of gender disparities in their organizations and engaging them in diversity promotion–are essential steps to counter gender bias and segregation [ 213 ].

Emerging topics: Leadership and entrepreneurship

Among the emerging topics, the most pervasive one is women reaching leadership positions in the workforce and in society. This is still a rare occurrence for two main types of factors, on the one hand, bias and discrimination make it harder for women to access leadership positions [e.g., 214 – 216 ], on the other hand, the competitive nature and high pressure associated with leadership positions, coupled with the lack of women currently represented, reduce women’s desire to achieve them [e.g., 209 , 217 ]. Women are more effective leaders when they have access to education, resources and a diverse environment with representation [e.g., 218 , 219 ].

One sector where there is potential for women to carve out a leadership role is entrepreneurship . Although at the start of the millennium the discourse on entrepreneurship was found to be “discriminatory, gender-biased, ethnocentrically determined and ideologically controlled” [ 220 ], an increasing body of literature is studying how to stimulate female entrepreneurship as an alternative pathway to wealth, leadership and empowerment [e.g., 221 ]. Many barriers exist for women to access entrepreneurship, including the institutional and legal environment, social and cultural factors, access to knowledge and resources, and individual behavior [e.g., 222 , 223 ]. Education has been found to raise women’s entrepreneurial intentions [e.g., 224 ], although this effect is smaller than for men [e.g., 109 ]. In addition, increasing self-efficacy and risk-taking behavior constitute important success factors [e.g., 225 ].

Finally, the topic of sustainability is worth mentioning, as it is the primary objective of the SDGs and is closely associated with societal well-being. As society grapples with the effects of climate change and increasing depletion of natural resources, a narrative has emerged on women and their greater link to the environment [ 226 ]. Studies in developed countries have found some support for women leaders’ attention to sustainability issues in firms [e.g., 227 – 229 ], and smaller resource consumption by women [ 230 ]. At the same time, women will likely be more affected by the consequences of climate change [e.g., 230 ] but often lack the decision-making power to influence local decision-making on resource management and environmental policies [e.g., 231 ].

Research gaps and conclusions

Research on gender equality has advanced rapidly in the past decades, with a steady increase in publications, both in mainstream topics related to women in education and the workforce, and in emerging topics. Through a novel approach combining methods of text mining and social network analysis, we examined a comprehensive body of literature comprising 15,465 papers published between 2000 and mid 2021 on topics related to gender equality. We identified a set of 27 topics addressed by the literature and examined their connections.

At the highest level of abstraction, it is worth noting that papers abound on the identification of issues related to gender inequalities and imbalances in the workforce and in society. Literature has thoroughly examined the (unconscious) biases, barriers, stereotypes, and discriminatory behaviors that women are facing as a result of their gender. Instead, there are much fewer papers that discuss or demonstrate effective solutions to overcome gender bias [e.g., 121 , 143 , 145 , 163 , 194 , 213 , 232 ]. This is partly due to the relative ease in studying the status quo, as opposed to studying changes in the status quo. However, we observed a shift in the more recent years towards solution seeking in this domain, which we strongly encourage future researchers to focus on. In the future, we may focus on collecting and mapping pro-active contributions to gender studies, using additional Natural Language Processing techniques, able to measure the sentiment of scientific papers [ 43 ].

All of the mainstream topics identified in our literature review are closely related, and there is a wealth of insights looking at the intersection between issues such as education and career progression or human capital and role . However, emerging topics are worthy of being furtherly explored. It would be interesting to see more work on the topic of female entrepreneurship , exploring aspects such as education , personality , governance , management and leadership . For instance, how can education support female entrepreneurship? How can self-efficacy and risk-taking behaviors be taught or enhanced? What are the differences in managerial and governance styles of female entrepreneurs? Which personality traits are associated with successful entrepreneurs? Which traits are preferred by venture capitalists and funding bodies?

The emerging topic of sustainability also deserves further attention, as our society struggles with climate change and its consequences. It would be interesting to see more research on the intersection between sustainability and entrepreneurship , looking at how female entrepreneurs are tackling sustainability issues, examining both their business models and their company governance . In addition, scholars are suggested to dig deeper into the relationship between family values and behaviors.

Moreover, it would be relevant to understand how women’s networks (social capital), or the composition and structure of social networks involving both women and men, enable them to increase their remuneration and reach top corporate positions, participate in key decision-making bodies, and have a voice in communities. Furthermore, the achievement of gender equality might significantly change firm networks and ecosystems, with important implications for their performance and survival.

Similarly, research at the nexus of (corporate) governance , career progression , compensation and female empowerment could yield useful insights–for example discussing how enterprises, institutions and countries are managed and the impact for women and other minorities. Are there specific governance structures that favor diversity and inclusion?

Lastly, we foresee an emerging stream of research pertaining how the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic challenged women, especially in the workforce, by making gender biases more evident.

For our analysis, we considered a set of 15,465 articles downloaded from the Scopus database (which is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature). As we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies, we only considered those papers published in journals listed in the Academic Journal Guide (AJG) 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS). All the journals listed in this ranking are also indexed by Scopus. Therefore, looking at a single database (i.e., Scopus) should not be considered a limitation of our study. However, future research could consider different databases and inclusion criteria.

With our literature review, we offer researchers a comprehensive map of major gender-related research trends over the past twenty-two years. This can serve as a lens to look to the future, contributing to the achievement of SDG5. Researchers may use our study as a starting point to identify key themes addressed in the literature. In addition, our methodological approach–based on the use of the Semantic Brand Score and its webapp–could support scholars interested in reviewing other areas of research.

Supporting information

S1 text. keywords used for paper selection..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.s001

Acknowledgments

The computing resources and the related technical support used for this work have been provided by CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure and its staff. CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure is funded by ENEA, the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development and by Italian and European research programmes (see http://www.cresco.enea.it/english for information).

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DOI: 10.1111/soc4.13263
Corpus ID: 272105966

Toward a Sociological Perspective on the Gender and Sexuality of Friendship

Emily C. Fox
Published in Sociology Compass 1 August 2024

102 References

Sexuality, romantic orientation, and masculinity: men as underrepresented in asexual and aromantic communities, aromanticism, asexuality, and relationship (non-)formation: how a-spec singles challenge romantic norms and reimagine family life, the discursive work of “bottom-shaming”: sexual positioning discourse in the construction of black masculinity, the myth of man the hunter: women’s contribution to the hunt across ethnographic contexts, queering singlehood: examining the intersection of sexuality and relationship status from a queer lens, the stability of singlehood: limitations of the relationship status paradigm and a new theoretical framework for reimagining singlehood, navigating the risks of party rape in historically white greek life at an elite college: women’s accounts, stand by me: social ties and health in real time, lesbian, gay, and bisexual widows' experiences of grief, identity, and support: a qualitative study of relationships following the loss of a spouse or partner., childhood gender segregation in context: a cultural sociocontextual approach, related papers.

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A young, confident-looking woman stands on a prosperous-looking street in Dar es Salaam. She wears white earbuds and a multicolored top; behind her is a gleaming glass building and as bus.

Want to fight gender inequality? A review of data from 118 countries shows that development aid works

Professor of Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth

Disclosure statement

Bedassa Tadesse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Gender inequality isn’t just unfair — it’s also a drag on the world economy. Giving women the same economic opportunities as men would add about US$12 trillion to global gross domestic product by 2025, one analysis found. That’s an 11% boost.

The link between women’s empowerment and economic growth is well established. When women are economically empowered, they invest more in their families, creating a cycle of positive outcomes that spans generations . Women’s participation in the workforce leads to greater productivity and brings diverse perspectives that enhance decision-making and drive innovation .

Recognizing these benefits, governments and nongovernmental organizations have increasingly directed aid — funds provided to developing countries to foster economic growth — toward promoting women’s empowerment.

As an economist who studies development , I wanted to know: Does all that money really make a difference? So, in a recent study , my colleagues and I analyzed the impact of gender-related aid on gender inequality using data from 118 countries over a 13-year period, from 2009 to 2022.

What we found was uplifting: Gender-related aid reduced inequality in most countries we studied.

We looked at two types of gender-related aid. The first is funding for projects that tie gender into larger economic goals. Development experts call this “ significant gender-related aid .” There’s also aid funding that narrowly and explicitly targets gender equality. Experts call this “principal gender-related aid.”

We found that the first approach consistently and significantly reduced gender inequality in 115 out of 118 countries we studied. The latter approach had statistically significant effects in 85 countries. It also appeared to be much more effective when paired with the first approach.

Our findings strongly suggest that integrating gender-related aid into broader development efforts is crucial for promoting gender equality. Gender and development are intricately intertwined, a fact often overlooked. Recognizing this connection is crucial for achieving sustainable and inclusive growth.

Women’s empowerment success stories

That might all sound pretty abstract, but our research shows that the world has made progress in real people’s lives over the past decades. Cases from several countries show just how much progress is possible:

Rwanda: Following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda made a concerted effort to rebuild its society with gender equality at its core. Today, women hold 61% of parliamentary seats , the highest percentage in the world . This remarkable achievement is in part a direct result of gender-focused policies and significant investments in women’s political empowerment. Rwanda’s progress illustrates how political will and dedicated gender-related aid can transform a society .

Bangladesh: Despite traditional gender roles, Bangladesh has made significant strides in gender equality , particularly in education and economic participation . Through targeted programs like the Female Secondary School Stipend Program and microfinance initiatives by organizations like the Grameen Bank, Bangladesh has seen substantial improvements in girls’ education and women’s economic empowerment. These initiatives have contributed to a decline in gender disparities and have spurred economic growth.

Ethiopia: In recent decades, Ethiopia has invested heavily in education , particularly for girls. Programs aimed at increasing school enrollment and reducing dropout rates among girls have led to improved literacy rates and better health outcomes. These educational advancements have empowered women economically and socially, reducing gender inequality .

Despite progress made, these achievements aren’t set in stone. Instability can rapidly undo years of progress. Recent policy backsliding in Afghanistan , Brazil and the United States shows the need for vigilance.

Empowering women empowers men, too

Discussions about the importance of reducing gender inequality often revolve around the direct benefits to women and girls. But everyone, including men, stands to win in a more gender-equal society.

First, women’s economic empowerment leads to stronger economies , which benefits everyone. Research shows that gender equality promotes healthier relationships, reduces violence and fosters more cohesive and supportive communities . Similarly, workplaces prioritizing gender equality tend to have better team dynamics, higher employee satisfaction and increased productivity . These are gains for everyone, regardless of gender.

And gender equality has distinct benefits for men. This is because it alleviates the pressures associated with traditional masculinity , which can lead to better mental health. For example, in more gender-equal societies, men report being happier with life and less stressed and depressed .

This shows that the benefits of gender equality aren’t limited to women and girls; they extend to all members of society. Everyone has a stake in helping progress move along.

Research-backed best practices

Governments and aid professionals should follow five steps for success to safeguard the advances made in gender equality and continue progressing:

1. Keep the aid flowing: Continued financial and technical support for gender equality initiatives is vital. Our research suggests policymakers should focus on integrating gender considerations into all development projects.

2. Engage everyone: Involving men and boys in gender equality efforts helps to challenge and change harmful gender norms, fostering a more inclusive society.

3. Tailor strategies: Although aid has an effect across the board, gender equality initiatives must consider each country’s unique sociopolitical and cultural contexts. Tailoring strategies to fit these contexts ensures that interventions are relevant and practical .

4. Strengthen institutions: Effective institutions and governance are crucial for successfully implementing and sustaining gender equality initiatives. Efforts to improve governance and reduce corruption will enhance the impact of aid

5. Promote education: Schools are a powerful tool for promoting gender equality. Investing in educational programs that empower women and girls and raise awareness about gender issues is essential for long-term change .

Gender equality is a cornerstone of a just and prosperous society. The benefits of empowering women extend far beyond the immediate recipients of gender-related aid, fostering economic growth, political stability and social cohesion. Our research shows that efforts to empower women really do pay off — literally and otherwise.

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Research Topics

Gender in Sports: Challenges, Impacts and Pathways to Equity

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Gender bias in sports is a longstanding issue that affects athletes and women in leadership positions across all levels of competition. Despite significant progress in gender equity initiatives, disparities persist in media coverage, funding, sponsorship, coaching opportunities, and leadership roles. The bias not only impacts the visibility and financial support for women but also influences their psychological well-being, career longevity, and overall experience in sports. This Research Topic aims to address the critical problem of gender bias in sports. It seeks to provide a platform for analyzing the effects of gender bias on athletes, leadership positions, and sports organizations. It aims to explore the role of media and cultural perceptions in perpetuating gender disparities, as well as evaluate and highlight effective policies and initiatives that have successfully promoted gender equity. By gathering diverse perspectives and evidence-based research, this collection strives to identify practical strategies for overcoming gender bias and promoting inclusivity within sports environments. The ultimate goal is to foster dialogue, inform policy-making, and inspire actionable solutions that will contribute to reducing gender disparities and advancing equity in sports at all levels. This Research Topic invites contributions that explore various aspects of gender bias in sports, including but not limited to: • Disparities in media representation and coverage • Inequities in funding, sponsorships, and resource allocation • Gender differences in coaching opportunities and leadership roles • Psychological impacts of gender bias on athletes • Economic analysis of gender disparities in professional sports, the Olympic Games, and the Paralympic Games • Intersectional perspectives on gender bias We welcome all types of manuscripts and papers focusing on underrepresented groups, innovative solutions, and practical applications are particularly encouraged.

Keywords : Gender bias, sports equity, professional sports, amateur sports, collegiate sports, economic impact, intersectionality, media representation, psychological effects, policy initiatives, pay gap, leadership

Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.

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Australians are living longer than most people in English-speaking OECD countries, new research says

By Ahmed Yussuf

Topic: Health

Two men walking on a busy street with children on their shoulders.

The study found Australia had the lowest inequality for both men and women when compared to other English-speaking OECD nations. ( Pixabay: Mircea Iancu )

An international study has found Australia has a better life expectancy compared to other English-speaking OECD nations.

The worst performer was the United States, despite spending the most on healthcare compared to any other OECD nation.

What's next?

Some experts have said Australia should not become complacent highlighting large disparities in health outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people.

People living in Australia have better health outcomes and face less inequality compared to other high-income countries in the Anglosphere.

That is according to research published in the open access medical journal BMJ Open.

International researchers analysed several English-speaking countries such as New Zealand, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom to review life expectancy between 1990 and 2018.

They found Australia was the best performer in life expectancy at birth since the 1990s.

"Australia performs well, but still has room for improvement, particularly in the area of reducing inequalities among its indigenous populations," researchers said.

"Overall, Australia offers a potential model for lower-performing Anglophone countries, such as the USA and UK, to follow to reduce both premature mortality and inequalities in life expectancy."

What does Australia's age and gender distribution look like?

The Australian Bureau of Statistics issued new data looking at the age and gender distribution across the country for 2023.

Darwin had the youngest median age out of all other capital cities in Australia.

Beidar Cho, the ABS' head of demography, said that Darwin was a year younger than the next youngest capital, Canberra.

"[Darwin] was also the only capital where males outnumbered females, with 104.7 males for every 100 females," Ms Cho said.

Australian National University demographer Liz Allen said the data showed a clear geographical picture of where Australia was aging.

"Aging is quite pronounced in some geographic areas across Australia, particularly in more regional areas outside of capital cities. With that, we see enormous age disparities, particularly in regional and remote areas," she said.

"When it comes to Darwin and the Northern Territory generally, we can see there that, as a result of differences in population composition.

"We see a much younger population, and that would be driven by a higher birth rate, and of course, the makeup of Indigenous people in communities there."

Dr Allen said governments across all levels should not be too fixated on aggregate figures because there was a danger of missing more complicated issues happening underneath.

"That is that there are areas of highly concentrated age disparities, and that presents enormous challenges," she said.

"Because there's no one size fits all here, there needs to be tailored service provision in local areas to accommodate and support communities to avoid any adverse social outcomes."

Why Australia is leading in life expectancy

The study in BMJ open has suggested that Australia's high number of people born overseas was a possible explanation for its performance compared to other English-speaking OECD nations.

Health economist Martin Hensher said that it was an established phenomenon that countries with high levels of immigration tend to have better levels of life expectancy.

"So basically, young immigrants arrive and they tend to be healthier than the locals, so they drive up life expectancy," he said.

The study also highlighted lower smoking rates, public health campaigns regarding gun ownership and mental health, as well as the country's healthcare system as reasons for Australia doing better than other countries.

Australia had about a four to five-year life expectancy advantage over the US and a one to 2.5-year advantage over Canada, New Zealand and the UK.

The worst performer in life expectancy every year since 2001 has been the US, despite its healthcare spending, both per person and as a share of GDP, being higher than any other OECD nation.

Dr Hensher highlighted despite the study looking into the years between 1990 and 2018, Australia still has better life expectancy rates than the other countries included in the research.

"Our COVID response was massively superior to most of these other countries. So we didn't have the big dip in life expectancy that particularly America and the United Kingdom had," he said.

Australia also had the lowest within-country inequality for both men and women, particularly for ages over 40.

New Zealand and the US had the highest inequality among women, while the UK, New Zealand and the US had the highest among men.

Experts warn Australia should not be complacent

Dr Hensher said Australia's growing economic inequalities could see life expectancy fall if governments do not act to effectively combat it.

"We also need to keep pushing on these public health measures that improve health. So the very obvious example is the watering down of the restrictions on gambling advertising that's a step in the wrong direction," he said.

He said for Australia to continue to see better health outcomes, and prevent further inequalities, there needed to be more action on critical determinants of health such as housing and air quality.

"If we do let increasing numbers of people become homeless, that absolutely will lead to reduced life expectancy and poorer health down the track.

"We need to get on top of making sure that every Australian has access to decent housing, we need to be working hard on air pollution, which particularly in urban areas is quite a driver of preventable diseases."

One of the key areas of improvement for Australia highlighted in the study was the disparity in health outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities.

"We need to not rest on our laurels here because what you can see in this [journal] article is that they show that the outlier in Australia is the Northern Territory," he said.

"That reflects the terrible inequalities in poor health status that the Indigenous population, particularly in the Northern Territory, suffer."

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Social Welfare fall research events aim to facilitate important discussions

Wed, 08/28/2024

School of Social Welfare

The University of Kansas School of Social Welfare is hosting three research events this fall aimed at engaging social workers and other community partners in important discussions about our research and its implications for practice and policy.

The closest event on the calendar is called “Self-Care in Election Season,” which is a free, online offering from the Center for Community Engagement and Collaboration. The Sept. 19 event is full, but the Center is offering a second Real Self-Care in Election Season on Sept. 27 from 2-3:30 p.m., and registration is still open. Recipients will receive 1.5 hours of ethics CEUs.

The next online event is on Oct. 16 at 12 p.m. This event, “ Survivor Link + Public Health AmeriCorps : Partnering with Agencies to Build Capacity to Respond to Domestic Violence . , ” will present the Survivor Link pilot and examine how social work students have used their training in domestic/intimate partner violence to increase their practicum agencies’ capacity to support survivors. A panel will discuss the lessons of this intervention , for meeting the Grand Challenge to end family violence.

The final offering this fall is a Research Impact Talk on Nov. 13 from 12-2 p.m. called “Gender-Affirming Care: Research-Informed Strategies for Improving the Mental Health of Transgender Youth.” This online program provides a foundation of knowledge about gender identity and effective clinical practice to support transgender youth development and well-being. Social workers and other practitioners will learn about the research that identifies the range of gender-affirming care practices that contribute to healthy social and emotional development in trans youth. Attendees will gain concrete clinical tools for their own practice with trans youth and their families, within the Kansas policy context. Attendees will receive two clinical diagnosis/treatment CEUs.

A full list of events can be found at socwel.ku.edu/events

Media Contacts

Sean Collins

785-864-1055

[email protected]

COMMENTS

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What is Sociology?

Elements of Sociology Research

a) Research Question

b) Literature Review

c) Research Design

d) Data Collection

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b) Research Databases

c) Sociological Associations and Conferences

d) Sociological Research Centers and Institutes

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1. Gender Inequality In The Workplace

2. The Influence Of Cultural Norms On Marriage And Family Dynamics

3. The Sociology Of Crime And Deviance

4. Social Mobility And Class Dynamics

5. Racism And Discrimination

6. Social Movements And Activism

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8. Education And Social Inequality

9. Health Disparities And Social Determinants Of Health

10. Aging And Society

11. Environmental Sociology

12. Media Representation And Stereotypes

13. Youth Culture And Identity

14. Social Networks And Social Capital

15. Religion And Society

16. Globalization and its effects

17. Social Inequality And Access To Healthcare

18. Political Sociology

19. Urbanization And Urban Sociology

20. Socialization And Identity Formation

21. Mental Health And Society

22. Family Structures And Dynamics

23. Social Support Systems And Well-Being

24. Technology And Society

25. Social Movements and LGBTQ+Rights

26. Poverty And Social Welfare

27. Social Construction Of Gender

28. Disability And Society

29. Social Capital And Community Development

30. Media Effects On Body Image And Self-Esteem

31. Political Polarization And Social Divisions

32. Social Movements And Environmental Activism

32. Youth Unemployment And Its Consequences

33. Social Media And Political Engagement

34. Cultural Assimilation And Multiculturalism

35. Social Entrepreneurship And Social Innovation

36. Body Modification And Identity

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38. Religion And Social Cohesion

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40. Social Stigma And Marginalized Communities

41. Technology Addiction And Its Social Consequences

42. Global Migration And Refugee Crises

43. Social Capital And Economic Development

44. Education And Social Mobility

45. Social Inequalities In Healthcare Access

46. Socialization And Media Influence On Youth

47. Social Entrepreneurship And Sustainable Development

48. Social Movements And Racial Justice

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