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106 Conflict Resolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Conflict resolution is an essential skill that plays a crucial role in various aspects of our lives. Whether it is in personal relationships, the workplace, or even on a global scale, conflicts are inevitable. However, it is how we address and resolve these conflicts that determines the outcome and impact they have on our lives and the world around us.

Writing an essay on conflict resolution can provide a deeper understanding of this skill and its significance. To help you get started, here are 106 conflict resolution essay topic ideas and examples:

• The importance of conflict resolution in personal relationships.
• Conflict resolution techniques used in international diplomacy.
• The role of empathy in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution strategies for parents and children.
• The impact of unresolved conflicts on mental health.
• Conflict resolution in the workplace: best practices.
• The role of effective communication in resolving conflicts.
• Conflict resolution in multicultural societies.
• The influence of gender on conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution and negotiation skills in business.
• The role of compromise in resolving conflicts.
• Conflict resolution in online communities.
• The impact of conflict resolution on organizational productivity.
• Conflict resolution and its effect on community building.
• The role of forgiveness in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in educational settings.
• Conflict resolution in the criminal justice system.
• The impact of cultural differences on conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in the healthcare industry.
• Conflict resolution in sports teams.
• Conflict resolution and human rights.
• The role of power dynamics in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution and social media.
• The impact of conflict resolution on economic development.
• Conflict resolution in environmental disputes.
• Conflict resolution and international cooperation.
• The role of mediation in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in the family business.
• The impact of conflict resolution on personal growth.
• Conflict resolution and social justice.
• Conflict resolution and restorative justice.
• The role of negotiation in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in political campaigns.
• The impact of conflict resolution on romantic relationships.
• Conflict resolution in the classroom.
• Conflict resolution and conflict prevention.
• The role of compromise in international conflicts.
• Conflict resolution and the media.
• Conflict resolution in the digital age.
• The impact of conflict resolution on community engagement.
• Conflict resolution and public policy.
• Conflict resolution and mental health stigma.
• The role of leadership in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in the family court system.
• Conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
• The impact of conflict resolution on employee satisfaction.
• Conflict resolution in the nonprofit sector.
• Conflict resolution and social inequality.
• The role of trust in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in the music industry.
• Conflict resolution in urban planning.
• The impact of conflict resolution on interpersonal relationships.
• Conflict resolution in the military.
• Conflict resolution and workplace diversity.
• The role of emotions in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution and environmental conservation.
• Conflict resolution in international trade disputes.
• Conflict resolution and community policing.
• The impact of conflict resolution on team dynamics.
• Conflict resolution in diplomatic negotiations.
• Conflict resolution and conflict transformation.
• The role of dialogue in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution and social change.
• Conflict resolution in healthcare teams.
• Conflict resolution and human rights violations.
• The impact of conflict resolution on organizational culture.
• Conflict resolution in online gaming communities.
• Conflict resolution and the justice system.
• The role of compromise in interpersonal conflicts.
• Conflict resolution and urban development.
• Conflict resolution in the tech industry.
• The impact of conflict resolution on workplace communication.
• Conflict resolution and gender equality.
• Conflict resolution in community organizations.
• Conflict resolution and sustainable development.
• The role of active listening in conflict resolution.
• Conflict resolution in international peacekeeping missions.
• Conflict resolution and social entrepreneurship.
• The impact of conflict resolution on employee well-being.
• Conflict resolution in the film industry.
• Conflict resolution and environmental justice.
• The role of negotiation in interpersonal conflicts.
• Conflict resolution in public health emergencies.
• Conflict resolution and poverty reduction.
• Conflict resolution in online dating.
• The impact of conflict resolution on family dynamics.
• Conflict resolution and international human rights law.
• Conflict resolution and workplace ethics.
• The role of compromise in political conflicts.
• Conflict resolution in the fashion industry.
• Conflict resolution and sustainable agriculture.
• Conflict resolution in international aid organizations.
• The impact of conflict resolution on organizational effectiveness.
• Conflict resolution in online marketing campaigns.
• Conflict resolution and racial justice.
• The role of empathy in interpersonal conflicts.
• Conflict resolution in disaster response efforts.
• Conflict resolution and social media activism.
• The impact of conflict resolution on team performance.
• Conflict resolution in international business transactions.
• Conflict resolution and sustainable tourism.
• Conflict resolution in humanitarian interventions.
• The role of compromise in environmental conflicts.
• Conflict resolution and sustainable energy.
• Conflict resolution in international sports competitions.
• The impact of conflict resolution on community empowerment.

These essay topics cover a wide range of areas where conflict resolution plays a significant role. Whether you are interested in personal relationships, international affairs, or social justice, there is a topic that suits your interests. Remember to conduct thorough research and provide examples to support your arguments. Good luck with your essay!

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448 Conflict Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on conflict, ✍️ conflict essay topics for college, 👍 good conflict research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot conflict ideas to write about, 🎓 most interesting conflict research titles, 💡 simple conflict essay ideas, 📌 easy conflict essay topics, ❓ essay questions on conflict.

• Conflict Theory, Functionalism, Symbolic Interactionism
• Ugli Orange Case and Filley’s Conflict Management Theory
• Homosexuality as a Problem in the Conflict Theory
• Conflict Management in the Army
• Conflict in “A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings” by Márquez
• Media and Functionalism, Conflict, and Interactionism
• Conflict Theory: Background, Critical Aspects, and Personal Views
• Gender Roles in Modern Society: Structural-Functional vs. Conflict Perspectives Some people are obsessed with their biological or social differences, while others prefer not to pay much attention to these concepts.
• Role of Religion in Functionalism and Conflict Perspectives This paper seeks to establish the role of religion in three major sociological theories (functionalism, conflict and Interactionism).
• The Conflict Theory in Today’s World The Conflict Theory is still relevant today because wealth disparity, racism, and sexism are becoming more and more prominent due to increased exposure.
• Conflict and Power: Police and Community Collaboration This paper includes an analysis of the nature of the conflict between law enforcement and citizens in the US, as well as some strategies that can contribute to solving the problem.
• Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory on Social Stratification The primary difference between fundamentalism and the theory of conflict lies in each model’s views regarding the nature of stratification.
• The Role of Conflicts in Hamlet by William Shakespeare A number of conflicts come out in the play Hamlet by William Shakespeare: internal conflict of Hamlet, the conflict between Hamlet and King Claudia and others.
• Hamlet’s Internal Conflict in Shakespeare’s Play Hamlet’s indecision presents the central pillar of the internal conflict. The distinction between illusion and reality presents another internal conflict within Hamlet.
• Conflict Management and Classical Theory Analysis This paper explores classical conflict theory, which emphasizes that conflicts arise due to differences in people’s views and poor quality of communication.
• Civility and Conflict Management in the Workplace This paper examines the importance of civility in an office, issues arising from workplace disagreements, and strategies used to manage and resolve such conflicts.
• Power, Politics and Conflict in an Organization In any organisation, there are office politics involved. Politics emerge due to the scarcity of important resources.
• Troy and Cory Conflict in “Fences” Play by Wilson Fences is a play in two acts written by August Wilson. The plot follows the life of Troy Maxon. One of the central conflicts of the play is between Troy and his son Cory.
• Examples of Conflict Between Personal and Professional Values Under conditions where personal and professional values are hard to deal with, a social worker has a right to apply the morally responsible measures in dealing with the problem.
• Conflict Between Friendship and Justice I was angry with my friend Omar because he openly discriminated against other people in my presence. He was especially skeptical about homosexual people.
• Conflicts in Harper Lee’s Novel “To Kill a Mockingbird” Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird reveals the central conflict of society and humanity that is represented through Boo’s disagreements with the entire town Maycomb.
• Conflict Theories: Gay Marriages and Feminism Conflict theories purport that, families can take different structures and do not view change as a clash or dysfunctional. This theory has been a catalyst for gay marriages and feminism.
• Walt Disney Company Conflicts Management One of the sources of disputes at Disney entails the different values held by the various stakeholders. Conflict occurs when people fail to understand each other.
• Main Conflicts in “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye was a novel written by J.D. Slinger. The novel’s protagonist is a young man struggling with various issues in his adolescence.
• Conflict and Functionalism Theories Functionalism theory developed from the work of Durkheim, who evaluated how part of society unite to form a whole society.
• Theme and Conflict in “A Doll’s House” by Henrik Ibsen The main conflict in the play ‘A Doll’s House’ by Henrik Ibsen shows how men in this society controlled women in everything, even their own choices in life.
• Interpersonal Conflict and Worldview Interpersonal conflict – the form of struggle that involves two or more people different from intrapersonal conflict, which only involves a struggle within yourself.
• Characters Conflict in “The Hound of the Baskervilles” by Doyle Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Hound of the Baskervilles is the continuation of the adventures of the genius detective Sherlock Holmes.
• Conflict Resolution Techniques In terms of the topic, the notions of conflict types, conflict resolution strategies, and conflict resolution skills will be taken into consideration.
• Parent-Child Conflict Resolution: Communication Problem The psychological view upon the problem of the parent-child conflict covers many aspects explaining the nature of generations’ contradictions.
• Conflict Resolution at Walmart The paper concerns conflict resolution at Walmart. It analyzes the challenges that Walmart needs to overcome and the application of management theories.
• Myths Featuring Conflicts Among Members of a Gods Family The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast two myths that depict a conflict between a family of gods.
• Conflict Management in Nursing Practice This paper explores the nature of conflict in the context of patient care, its four stages, and suggests the best strategy for resolving the conflict.
• Ethics vs. The Law: Main Conflicts Ethics is a philosophical branch that defines what is right and what is wrong concerning the actions of people, as well as the decisions they make.
• A Driving Conflict in Wilson’s Fences Play In Fences, Wilson uses the conflict of Troy versus family to drive all the elements of the play, as evidenced by family conflicts over a college scholarship and Troy’s infidelity.
• Karl Marx’s Conflict Theory and Alienation The current paper is devoted to Karl Marx’s conflict theory and the construct of alienation analysis and identifying its usefulness for social workers.
• Workplace Conflict: Case Study and Solutions Conflict within a company may be defined as a process that generally involves people disagreeing at work and may range from minor disagreements to considerable workplace violence.
• Cultural Conflict Description This paper discusses cultural conflict that was observed or personally experienced with people of a different background, and provides reflection and conclusions.
• Controlling and Managing Interpersonal Conflicts in the Workplace This paper states that it is critical for the supervisor to learn how to control and manage interpersonal conflicts in the workplace.
• Meaning of Conflict and Its Importance for Organizations The paper defines conflict and negotiations, explores the tactics and strategies that improve the conflict outcomes, and explains why conflicts are important for organizations.
• Conflict Resolution and Its Key Approaches There are many different approaches to resolving conflict, including accommodating, avoiding, collaborating, competing, and compromising.
• Man vs. Society Conflict in ”The Lottery” by S. Jackson The purpose of this paper is to discuss the conflict in “The Lottery” by S. Jackson as that of man vs. society.
• Conflicts between Antigone and Creon This paper analysis Antigone by Sophocles. This story begins after banishment of Oedipus, the king of Thebes. Antigone’s act sparks a conflict between her and her uncle, Creon.
• Intergroup Dynamics in Conflict Resolution This literature review delves into the existing literature on the theory of social identity and discusses new findings and shortcomings of the theory.
• Technology’s Impact on Workplace Conflict Technology is a significant part of modern business because it simplifies several tasks in an organization’s day-to-day functions.
• Leadership and Conflict Management The primary goal of the following paper is to present a practical way to employ conflict management skills within a team.
• Negotiations and Conflict Resolution The paper discusses the statement: Negotiators who frame a conflict as ‘winner takes all’ will have a harder time than those who believe it is possible for everyone to win.
• Role Play on Conflict Resolution Conflict resolution within an organization is one of the most critical leadership skills that foster cohesion, enhances work relationships, and improve the overall outlook of products.
• Hypothesis Writing: Israeli-Palestinian Conflict The conflict between Israel and Palestine can be seen as one of the characteristic attributes of politics in the Middle East.
• Team Building and Conflict Resolution at Workplace Teamwork is recognized more as a collaborative effort by the members for the mutual benefits of corporation and organization employee relations resulted as cooperation among the team members.
• Conflict Resolution in Nursing Sufficient conflict resolution is an essential component of any organization’s successful performance because conflicts occur in any sphere where human interaction is involved.
• Israeli-Palestinian Warfare: The Gaza Conflict The Gaza Conflict is one of the many conflicts within the Israeli-Palestinian warfare. The Gaza strip has been under attack for decades.
• Team-Building Activities and Conflict Resolution Team building is an important instrument that assists organizations in building teams that are able to accomplish objectives and tasks which are defined by organizations.
• Alice Walker’s ‘Everyday Use’ – Cultural Conflict and Family Bonds This paper aims to closely analyze “Everyday Use” by Alice Walker regarding the historical concept, themes, and significant literal attributes in the book.
• Conflict in “The Stranger” Novel by Albert Camus In the novel “The Stranger” by Albert Camus, readers follow the story of Meursault, whose mother recently died and who killed an Arab for no understandable or obvious reason.
• Marxist Conflict Theory According to Karl Marx, despite the systemic nature of the social relations between the members of society, they contain a huge number of conflicting interests.
• Impact of Workplace Conflict on Patient Care The paper states that disruptive behaviors in the healthcare workplace harm the patient health outcome due to the inefficient functioning of staff.
• Tesla Inc.’s Workplace Safety Conflict Tesla Inc. was founded by Elon Musk in 2003 and has become one of the most innovative companies on the market.
• Leadership Strategies for Conflict Management in Nursing This paper will discuss the servant, transformational, and authoritarian conflict management styles, as they are the most prominent in the relevant literature.
• Conflict Resolution Case: Details and Stages There are many options for resolving various conflict situations. To use them, it is necessary to think soberly and sometimes even predict possible conflicts.
• Structural Functional and Dysfunctional Conflicts Conflict is something that occurs in any workplace, it is an inevitable part of the work routine. Sometimes it can be helpful, as conflicts highlight a particular problem.
• Shakespear’s Hamlet: Conflict Between Seeming and Being This is an analysis of the characters such as Hamlet, Ophelia, Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern clarifies the play’s obsession with the theme of the conflict between seeming and being.
• Group Dynamics, Managing Conflict, and Managing Stress and Employee Job Satisfaction This paper discusses of whether a high cohesiveness in a group leads to higher group productivity, or not. Analysis of the effect of the quality of decision-making within the group.
• Coser’s Theory and an Example of a Social Conflict This paper discusses the concept of social conflict, which arises due to contradictions between different social groups, and its significance in societal progress.
• Pronatalism in Functionalist and Conflict Theory Views This paper looks into the consequences of taxing the childless population at the expense of families and the views of functionalists and conflict theorists toward pronatalism.
• Power, Politics, and Conflict in Business Organizations Conflict is an attribute of both power and politics, and this paper aims to observe how it results from organizational resource scarcity within the business sector.
• Conflict Between Employee, Customer, and Manager The situation described in this paper exemplifies the conflict between the employee, the customer and the superior manager.
• Conflict Management in Business There are various reasons why conflicts occur in organizations. Moreover, conflicts take place on different levels based on the core of the problem that needs to be addressed.
• Concept of Saving Face in Conflict Resolution Human beings are flesh and blood with emotion and words can scar one for life. Before one opens their mouth to confront another party they should think about their words.
• Conflicts in “The Rich Brother” by Tobias Wolff In the short story “The Rich Brother,” Tobias Wolff vividly portrays a conflict between rich and poor brothers.
• Conflict Management and Team Building Communication is one of the most crucial elements in stable and healthy relationships. It can also affect conflicts positively, as it can help people to identify the causes of disagreements.
• Conflicts and Development in Emerging States The debate around possible advantages of conflicts has not been taken into account. There is no evidence proving that conflicts positively influence developing countries.
• Riverbend City Case: Conflict Management The given case presents an intercultural conflict between Felicity Pearson from the Riverbend City Civil Liberties Union and Police Chaplain Lee Khang.
• Nurse-Physician Conflict and Resolution Nurses communicate with a variety of health professionals. When it comes to nursing, conflicts in the workplace can have serious effects on patient health.
• Role, Conflict, Social Exchange Theories in Nursing Role theory, conflict theory, and social exchange theory should be discussed in the case of the nurse that is regularly challenged to prove her self-worth and skills.
• United Nations in the Israeli-Palestine Conflict In some cases, the UN has played a major role in contributing to conflicts. One such case is the Israeli-Palestinian conflict that still remains an issue to this day.
• Interpersonal Conflict: Marvel Cinematic Universe The conflict between Tony Stark and Steve Rogers in the Marvel Cinematic Universe is a classic example of interpersonal conflict.
• Negotiation Case Study: Negotiation and Conflict Management Before analyzing the negotiation, it is necessary to consider the scenario and essential aspects such as purpose and participants.
• Managing Conflict: Understanding Interpersonal Communication Conflicts are something that all people encounter in their life, that is why understanding different ways of handling them is important to ensure conflict resolution.
• Conflict in The Metamorphosis Essay Example In the novel “The Metamorphosis”, Kafka describes his own life through the life of Gregor. The author faced seclusion and separation from his workplace and family.
• Communication Issues and Conflict Resolution Communication has assisted in the growth of trust and the generation of solutions with your stakeholders and corrective action.
• Conflict Resolution at the Workplace Mutual conversation among employees is one of the critical factors which result in good relationships among the workers.
• Sources and Levels of Organizational Conflict The purpose of this essay is the examination of the sources and levels of conflict and the evaluation of potential outcomes of the conflict solution.
• Conflict Resolution: A Constructive Approach The lack of strategic vision and poor group management in an organization can result in low commitment and conflict situations, lack of understanding, and satisfaction.
• Gender and Cultures in Conflict Resolution The conflict resolution measures should not solely end conflicts, but should also help to restore the fighting communities together.
• Deontological and Consequential Ethical Conflict The case under discussion provides a moral dilemma when adhering to the rules contradicts the desire to do someone good.
• Conflict Management in the Healthcare Sector This paper will examine the extent to which my capacity to deal with disagreements can ruin or facilitate effective leadership in the healthcare sector.
• Workplace Conflict Resolution and Team Building This paper provides several recommendations for resolving a number of conflict situations in the workplace and creating an effective team.
• Conflict Theory in Nursing Practice This reflective journal entry elaborates on some issues that nurses face in their daily practice, and what theories can support them when resolving the arising problems.
• Psychiatric Nurse Practitioner in Conflict Resolution The present paper is devoted to a case study of the Psychiatric-mental health nurse practitioner (PMHNP) involvement in conflict resolution.
• Healthcare Conflict Resolution Case This paper dwells on the details of the conflict in a Healthcare Setting between Kimberly and Jade and describes the stages of the conflict.
• Conflicts: Main Reasons and Resolution Conflict resolution is a complex issue that implies numerous points of view on the same problem and the ability to find the main reason for confrontation.
• Conflict Management in Healthcare Facilities Heads of different health faculties must effectively resolve the issues of conflict in their areas as health care leaders are not immune.
• The Armed Conflict in Nigeria and Its Impact The primary aim of the research is to explore the impact of armed conflict in Nigeria. This conflict features less in media as compared to the wars in Syria and Yemen.
• Conflict Management Steps and Styles In all the various forms, various types of conflict termination are realized: such as mutual reconciliation or destruction of opposing agents.
• Relational Dialectics and Conflict Management Relational dialectics can be described as a concept of communication theories that analyses contradictions and tensions that exist in relationships.
• Criminological Conflict Theory by Sykes Sykes identified three important elements, which he used to elucidate the criminological conflict theory. Sykes highlighted the existence of profound skepticism towards any theory.
• Conflict Management Styles This article describes a specific conflict that occurred in the shoe store queue and describes ways to resolve the conflict.
• Conflict Theory: Definition and Main Concepts Conflict theory is a concept used in a wide range of disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, criminology, communication, education, among many others.
• Media Coverage on Israeli-Palestinian Conflict The media highlights the occupation as an immoral and illegal act by Israelis which should be resisted in its entirety.
• Managing Conflict Discussion: Personal Experience Conflicts happen all the time between friends, members of the family, colleagues, or even strangers.
• Conflict Resolution in Business The function of a conflict is drawing attention to the problems that exist within a group of people and catalyze its resolving.
• Personal Experience in the Covert Conflict I experienced the negative consequences of the covert conflict while living with the roommate who avoided expressing the real emotions and feelings.
• Conflict Resolution and Action Plan in Hospital In this assignment, a recurring conflict in a hospital setting in Miami will be discussed for the purpose of developing an effective action plan for subsequent conflict resolution.
• Conflict Resolution Between Nurse and Patient This paper discusses the case of intense disagreement between a nurse and a patient regarding the use of antibiotics as a treatment method for a viral infection.
• Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism The book, Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism by Alvin Plantinga, explores various questions on the three broad areas of life.
• Compromise and Collaboration in Conflict Resolution The choice of conflict resolution approach depends on the situation. Compromise and collaboration are the most popular approaches with their own benefits and disadvantages.
• Strategies for Workplace Conflict Management It is essential to recognize the stage of conflict and intervene to resolve it. It is necessary to develop management skills to identify the causes and consequences of disputes.
• American Apparel: The Ethical Conflicts This study of American Apparel found ethical conflicts such as untimely paying employees, using taboo topics to promote their product, and insults and abuse by supervisors.
• The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Palestinians were against the emergence of the state of Israel, and a war broke out, a peace agreement on which was never reached.
• Conflict Management in the Workplace In most workplaces, there are instances where different people with varying opinions and needs enter into an argument.
• Managing Conflict in Teams and Organizations Institutional discrepancy conflict is an inevitable phenomenon in the organization but if managed properly, it can cause people and the foundation to develop and improve.
• The Rise of Criminological Conflict Theory Three key factors that explain the emergence of conflict theory are the influence of the Vietnam War, the rise of the counterculture, and anti-discrimination movements.
• Interpersonal & Internal Conflict in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” Conflicts are integral parts of our lives, and knowing how to resolve them is one of the essential skills to learn.
• Transformational Leadership Approach to Conflict Management in Emergency Care The research stresses the leadership importance in the conflict management process and highlights its vitality for bringing positive changes to the emergency departments.
• “Lawrence and Aaronsohn: T.E. Lawrence, Aaron, Aaronsohn” by Ronald Florence: Arab-Israel Conflict Ronald Florence wrote “Lawrence and Aaronsohn: T.E. Lawrence Aaron, Aaronsohn” to explain the origin of the Arab-Israel conflict, which continued to attack the Middle East.
• The Industrial Revolution and Class Conflict The Industrial Revolution brought about global changes, social divisions and urbanization. Capitalism has been assaulting laborers since the time the industrial revolution began.
• Values and Conflicts in The Oresteia by Aeschylus The play Orestes revolves around the concept of justice: justice as revenge thus putting personal responsibility of revenge on the insulted.
• Emotional Factors in Conflict Management This essay will point out the emotional factors embroidered within this field and relate them to the theories and hence evaluate the role played by the emotional factors.
• The Israel-Palestinian Conflict and Its Solution The paper gives a look on the Israel-Palestinian conflict and tries to come up with a solution to the conflict through the formulation of new strategies.
• The Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention The chapter “The Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention” of “The Lexus and The Olive Tree” by Friedman highlights the influence of McDonald’s and the economic side of war.
• Miami Hospital’s Nursing Conflict Resolution This essay will describe a recent conflict in one of the Miami hospitals and discuss potential strategies for dealing with work-related quarrels in health organizations.
• Moral Issues in 21st-Century Conflict Killing an innocent person is an immoral act in itself, and it means nothing whether it has some noble purpose or not.
• Child Soldiers in Modern Armed Conflicts The overview of modern wars shows that children compose the category that is regarded as one of the main victims of armed conflicts.
• Male and Female Escalated Conflict There is an ever-increasing conflict between males and females. This calls for a serious and urgent solution to settle differences between these important groups of society.
• Conflict Competence in the Workplace Conflicts can happen in any workplace. All employees, while occupying the same territory, may have different values and goals.
• Zimbabwe’s Political Elites and Ethnic Conflict Zimbabwe used to be one of Africa’s most prosperous states, backed up by a thriving tourism industry, a lucrative precious metals sector and a robust agricultural industry.
• Nurses’ Intergroup Conflict and Its Stages This paper investigates an intergroup conflict based on nurses’ experience and attitude towards new employees, describes four main stages that can be a part of any conflict.
• Self-Interest and Public Interest Conflicts This paper discusses two inherent conflicts that might occur between self-interest and public interest, namely definitional challenges and market-oriented mechanisms.
• Alternative Business Conflict Resolution in the Board of Directors This paper examines the phenomenon of conflict within the board of directors as a corporate problem in light of the search for alternative dispute resolution.
• Conflict Resolutions in Northern Ireland and Cyprus This paper explains the rationale behind mediation based on the resolution efforts made in Cyprus and Northern Ireland.
• Good vs. Bad Conflict in the Workplace Good conflict is constructive and helps an organization to grow and improve, while bad conflict is destructive and damages relationships and productivity.
• Resource Sharing, Planning, and Conflict Management By focusing on conflict management, resource sharing, and active planning, it is possible to survive in different circumstances.
• Cultural Impact on Negotiations and Conflict Resolution Cultural background determines the course and success of negotiations. Remarkably, cultural differences may contribute to conflicts, which complicate their resolution.
• The Mediation of Conflict in Personal Experiences Mediation is becoming increasingly common because it saves time and money compared to going to court and allows both parties.
• Crime and Deviance: Conflict and Functionalist Theories Various theories consider crime and deviance. This essay examines these phenomena within the framework of conflict and functionalist theory.
• Growth Machine Conflicts in Post-Amazon Western Queens The essay will answer questions based on the Amazon headquarters project and Western Queens Community Land Trust’s controversial plans.
• Seeking Conflict Resolutions The paper states that conflicts do not have to worsen relationships. It is vital for all involved sides to avoid dwindling in the past and move forward.
• Discussion of Personal Conflict of Interest In FAR Subpart 3.11 – Preventing Personal Conflicts of Interest for Contractor Employees Performing Acquisition Functions, the term “Personal Conflict of Interest” is defined.
• Problem-Solving and Conflict Avoiding at A&B Healthcare, Inc. This report aims to examine the issue of conflicts within A&B Healthcare, Inc. and to provide solutions for addressing and avoiding them.
• Functionalist, Conflict, and Interactionist Theories Social relationships are complex processes that require several scientific approaches, which are discussed in the paper.
• Al’s Pals Program: Children’s Conflicts The paper discusses children’s conflicts. They can arise over resources, discipline, communication difficulties, values, and needs.
• Conflict Management: A Conflict Between the Vice Presidents In managing this conflict, the first thing to do is spot the Vice Presidents who are up to the idea of acquisition and those who do not support it.
• Diversity and Other Conflict Management Tools Among the tools that are applied the most are diversity, inclusion, equality, and equity, which lead to healthy communication and team productivity.
• Impacts of the China-Taiwan Conflict on the US Economy Assuming that the simmering tensions between Taiwan and Beijing escalate to war, the economic challenges would be catastrophic to the US.
• Work-Family Conflict and Women of Impact Since individuals typically spend much time on work, some of them can have difficulties having families and taking care of their relatives.
• The 24 Hour Fitness Firm’s Employee Conflict On March 12, 2018, a complete story documenting the ongoing conflict between 24 Hour Fitness’s staff and management appeared in Capital & Main.
• Religious Diversity and Sources of Conflict Religious diversity is a prospective source of conflict in almost every cohesive society. There may be some friction due to people’s frequent ignorance about different religions.
• A Personal Experience of a Destructive Conflict The paper presents a discussion of a personal experience of a destructive conflict, the kind of conflict style that happened, and how the conflict was resolved.
• Seminar: Conflict and Power Dynamics The categories of conflict resolution are compared based on the transaction cost involved, satisfaction with the outcomes, recurrence, and effect on the relationships.
• Workplace Conflict Between Nurses The task of nurse leaders is to provide visionary leadership to foster a constructive work environment where disagreements are dealt with more effectively.
• The Veil Conflict: Wearing Religious Symbols in Schools This paper delves into the controversy sparked by French President Jacques Chirac’s ban on wearing religious symbols in schools in March 2004.
• Conditions Leading to Statehood in Israel- Palestinian Conflict 1948 Missing concepts in the historic Israeli- Palestine War and the formation of a Jewish state have promoted ideological differences between old and new historians.
• The Day of Revenge, BRAVO, and ALPHA Conflict The escalating tensions between Day of Revenge, BRAVO, and ALPHA have contributed to the creation of a dangerous global conflict.
• Centurion Media: The Conflict of Interest While there may be a conflict of interest with respect to certain employee, it may also be aimed at bringing radical change to Centurion Media.
• Organizational Conflicts: The Key Aspects This study will identify the underlying humanistic facets that contribute to interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts in an organization.
• Implications of the U. S. Endorsement of Jerusalem on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict This paper provides an overview of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, exploring its historical background, key events, and the challenges faced in achieving a peaceful resolution.
• The United States in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict Since the war between Russia and Ukraine started, it has affected the lives of citizens and government officials around the globe.
• The True Story of Che Guevara: Conflict & Terrorism The name of Ernesto “Che” Guevara is among the most well-known names in the world. The Argentinian freedom fighter played a crucial role in the Cuban revolution.
• Family Counselling and Therapy for High-Conflict Couples The paper presents bibliography about role of family counselling on marries and divorces, especially structural family therapy and dialectical behavior therapy.
• Servant Leadership, Cooperative Groups, and Productive Conflict Servant leadership differs substantially from traditional styles based on power, positioning the leader as a servant, not a supervisor.
• Role Ambiguity, Role Strain and Role Conflict I was a college student who was constantly busy with academic life and work. I was a full-time student, worked part-time at a retail store, and was also the president of a student organization. Despite my busy schedule, I felt fulfilled and enjoyed being involved in multiple activities. However, everything…
• International Law and Conflicts in Jurisdiction Courts, political or administrative offices, and, in several contexts, law-enforcement agencies can all be considered examples of formally sanctioned legal bodies.
• Conflicts Between the British and the Colonists The paper analyses the British Acts in American Colonies as Stamp Act, Townshend Act, Declaratory Act, and Tea Act.
• Change and Conflict Management in Church Over the last few decades, the Christian church has been rocked with major sex scandals, which hints at the necessity to rethink modern leadership.
• Law of Armed Conflict Rebuttal RAVO’s actions in JULIET and ALPHA territories were necessitated by the presence of Day of Revenge (DOR) terrorists in the areas.
• Conflicts in the Film “A Clockwork Orange” One of the A Clockwork Orange movie’s conflicts that can be observed is between the values of individual choice and society’s need for control.
• Zionism Issues in Israel and Palestine Conflict
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• “The Lottery” and “The Destructors”: Conflict, Characterization and Irony
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• The Palestine and the Arab-Israel Conflict
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• Race and Ethnicity and Meaningless Conflict
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• Sleepy Hollow General Hospital: Conflict of Interest
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• China-Philippines Conflict: Differences in News Broadcast
• Military Conflict and Involvement Consequences
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• American-Japanese Military and Race Conflicts in the Book “War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War”
• Workplace Conflicts Among Healthcare Workers
• Conflict Between Augustine and Pelagius
• Conflicts and Political Goals in Afghanistan, Gaza and Iraq
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• Conflict in Former Yugoslavia
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• The Problem of Palestinian-Israeli Conflict and Viable Solution
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• Prioritizing Tasks: The Most Common Workplace Conflict
• Attribution Bias in the Intergroup Conflict
• Conflict Between Jews and Arabs in Palestine 1947-1948
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• The Conflict Resolution and Moral Distress in Nursing
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• Workplace Interpersonal Conflicts Among the Healthcare Workers
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• Effective Communication and Conflict Resolution in Nursing
• Healing and Autonomy: The Conflict Between Conventional Medical Treatment and Spiritual Beliefs
• Nursing Conflicts, Their Types and Implications
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• Effective Conflict Resolution Strategies & Theories
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• United States-Iran Relations and Future Conflict
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• Civil Conflict and Economic Policy in El Salvador
• The History of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
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• Handling Difficult Conversations and Ways to Avoid Conflict Escalation
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• Conflicts and Resolution at Engineering Companies
• Conflict and Social Technologies in the Workplace
• What Factors Led to the Indian Pakistan Conflict?
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• Ethics and the Affordable Care Act’s Conflicts
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• University of Miami Hospital’s Nursing Conflicts
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• Israeli-Palestine Conflict and Global Community
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• Google Inc.’s Male and Female Employees’ Conflicts
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• Conflict Handling Style in Healthcare Setting
• Work-Family Conflict Implications in Strain Levels
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• Nurses Role in Conflicts
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• How Mexico Drug Cartels Are Supporting Conflicts?
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• How Can Family Conflicts Lead to Deviant Behavior in Children?
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• Can the WTO Reconcile Environmental and Trade Conflicts?
• What Are the Two Main Issues in the Current Israeli-Palestinian Conflict?
• Does Higher Inequality Lead to Conflict?
• How Can People Best Respond to Conflict?
• Does Poor Communication Cause Conflict in the Workplace?
• What Are the Major Conflicts Between Virtues and Utilitarianism?
• How Can Team Conflict Be Reduced?
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• How Does Maslow’s Theory of Human Needs Explain Conflict in Human Society?
• Why Are Intra State Conflicts So Difficult?
• How Does Shakespeare Use Conflict in “Hamlet” as a Way of Exploring Ideas?
• What Problems Are Caused by Conflict?

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 448 Conflict Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/conflict-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "448 Conflict Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/conflict-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "448 Conflict Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/conflict-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Conflict were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 21, 2024 .

Essay on Peace

500 words essay peace.

Peace is the path we take for bringing growth and prosperity to society. If we do not have peace and harmony, achieving political strength, economic stability and cultural growth will be impossible. Moreover, before we transmit the notion of peace to others, it is vital for us to possess peace within. It is not a certain individual’s responsibility to maintain peace but everyone’s duty. Thus, an essay on peace will throw some light on the same topic.

Importance of Peace

History has been proof of the thousands of war which have taken place in all periods at different levels between nations. Thus, we learned that peace played an important role in ending these wars or even preventing some of them.

In fact, if you take a look at all religious scriptures and ceremonies, you will realize that all of them teach peace. They mostly advocate eliminating war and maintaining harmony. In other words, all of them hold out a sacred commitment to peace.

It is after the thousands of destructive wars that humans realized the importance of peace. Earth needs peace in order to survive. This applies to every angle including wars, pollution , natural disasters and more.

When peace and harmony are maintained, things will continue to run smoothly without any delay. Moreover, it can be a saviour for many who do not wish to engage in any disrupting activities or more.

In other words, while war destroys and disrupts, peace builds and strengthens as well as restores. Moreover, peace is personal which helps us achieve security and tranquillity and avoid anxiety and chaos to make our lives better.

How to Maintain Peace

There are many ways in which we can maintain peace at different levels. To begin with humankind, it is essential to maintain equality, security and justice to maintain the political order of any nation.

Further, we must promote the advancement of technology and science which will ultimately benefit all of humankind and maintain the welfare of people. In addition, introducing a global economic system will help eliminate divergence, mistrust and regional imbalance.

It is also essential to encourage ethics that promote ecological prosperity and incorporate solutions to resolve the environmental crisis. This will in turn share success and fulfil the responsibility of individuals to end historical prejudices.

Similarly, we must also adopt a mental and spiritual ideology that embodies a helpful attitude to spread harmony. We must also recognize diversity and integration for expressing emotion to enhance our friendship with everyone from different cultures.

Finally, it must be everyone’s noble mission to promote peace by expressing its contribution to the long-lasting well-being factor of everyone’s lives. Thus, we must all try our level best to maintain peace and harmony.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of the Essay on Peace

To sum it up, peace is essential to control the evils which damage our society. It is obvious that we will keep facing crises on many levels but we can manage them better with the help of peace. Moreover, peace is vital for humankind to survive and strive for a better future.

FAQ of Essay on Peace

Question 1: What is the importance of peace?

Answer 1: Peace is the way that helps us prevent inequity and violence. It is no less than a golden ticket to enter a new and bright future for mankind. Moreover, everyone plays an essential role in this so that everybody can get a more equal and peaceful world.

Question 2: What exactly is peace?

Answer 2: Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in which there is no hostility and violence. In social terms, we use it commonly to refer to a lack of conflict, such as war. Thus, it is freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups.

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Essay Samples on Peace

Phenomenon of peace in the world.

Everyone in this world seeks peace. But what is Peace? Peace “is when people can resolve their conflicts without violence and can work together to improve the quality of their lives”.We are all fighting a war amongst ourselves to achieve utmost peace, and to win...

The Significance And Outcomes Of The First Hague Peace Conference

In order to understand and summarise the significance of The First Hague Peace conference, it is imperative to locate it not only within the twentieth-century, but as a derivative of nineteenth-century political events. One segment of World War 1 historians who focused on diplomacy either...

• Disarmament
• Nuclear Weapon

Comparison Of Jimmy Carter And Elie Wiesel Achievements In The Fight For Peace

Former President Jimmy Carter and Holocaust survivor Elie Weisel are both notable and knowledgeable men, who, through experience have their different ideations of how to achieve peace during a time where war seems inevitable. Carter’s, Just War or a Just War and Wiesel’s, Peace isn’t...

• Elie Wiesel
• Jimmy Carter

Search for Peace in the Just War Theory

In the article, “Does Peace Have a Chance?” that was printed by Slate on August 4, 2009, the author, John Horgan, evaluates the notion whether the actions and behaviour of mankind leads to antagonism and enmity which is the main cause of war and assesses...

• Just War Theory

Comparison of the Subject of Peace in Christianity and Islam

“There exist three forms of peace: interior peace, by which man is at peace with himself; the peace whereby man is at peace with God, submitting himself fully to God's dispositions; and the peace relative to one's neighbor, by which we live in peace with...

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The Definiton of Peace in Religion and Overall

Everyone in this world seeks peace. But what is Peace? Peace “is when people are able to resolve their conflicts without violence and can work together to improve the quality of their lives». We are all fighting a war amongst ourselves to achieve utmost peace,...

• Religious Beliefs

The Implementation of Peace with Peace Enforcement

Peace enforcement involves the application of a range of coercive measures, including the use of military force. It requires the explicit authorization of the Security Council. It is used to restore international peace and security in situations where the Security Council has decided to act...

• American Government
• Social Security

Extinction of Peace and Constant Presence of Conflict

Peace and conflict have always been joined at the hip since the beginning of mankind. The first peaceful era of human beings can be traced to Adam and Eve, and their stay at the garden of Eden. However, peace cannot go on unchecked for long....

Ways To Be Happy & To Live A Peaceful Life

Life is not all about having a lot of money. It doesn’t obligate you to always give. Or something that will always come out from you. Sometimes it is better to be silent. And in our life there will be a point that we will...

The Role Of Ethics In Peace And Conflict Research

The devastating violent conflicts experienced in Africa have raised numerous questions about their nature, causes, participants and ways to amicably end their intractableness. Other questions that require satisfactorily answers include why conflict actors like the political leaders, militias, extremists and suicide bombers, pirates, child soldiers,...

• Conflict Management

Best topics on Peace

1. Phenomenon Of Peace In The World

2. The Significance And Outcomes Of The First Hague Peace Conference

3. Comparison Of Jimmy Carter And Elie Wiesel Achievements In The Fight For Peace

4. Search for Peace in the Just War Theory

5. Comparison of the Subject of Peace in Christianity and Islam

6. The Definiton of Peace in Religion and Overall

7. The Implementation of Peace with Peace Enforcement

8. Extinction of Peace and Constant Presence of Conflict

9. Ways To Be Happy & To Live A Peaceful Life

10. The Role Of Ethics In Peace And Conflict Research

• Career Goals
• Personality
• Personal Experience
• Actions Speak Louder Than Words

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Essays About Conflict: Top 5 Examples and 7 Writing Prompts

Writing about disagreements between two or more groups is a challenge. To help you write this topic, see our examples and prompts for essays about conflict.

Conflict is a clash between two parties, often because of religious, social, or political disagreements. The ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine began in early 2014 and is an example of armed conflict. It affects the citizens, economy, tourism, and other sectors of the two countries, with impacts reaching other areas of the world.

In literature, conflict is an integral part of fictional stories that justifies characters’ actions and keeps readers engaged. Conflict is also a part of our everyday lives; from disagreements with family members to arguments with friends, we’ve all experienced conflict at one time or another. Since conflict is a sensitive topic, a critical rule in writing conflict essays is to always rely on factual evidence.

5 Essay Examples

1. why is conflict important by anonymous on studymoose.com, 2. analysis on conflict perspective in titanic by anonymous on edubirdie.com, 3. conflicts of difference in religion in the middle east by jennifer logan, 4. conflicts in relationship by james taylor, 5. workplace conflict by lindsey latoya, 1. the nature, type, and causes of conflict, 2. how achieving goals promotes intrapersonal conflict, 3. conflicts between nations then and now, 4. karl marx’s theory of conflict, 5. conflict: intrapersonal vs. interpersonal, 6. terrorism, conflict, and the tourism industry, 7. the influence of culture on conflicts.

“… Conflict is a big part of the story and it makes the story interesting. Without conflict, the story seems plain and there’s no flare to get people to want to read it or enjoy it. Some authors use man against himself, man against nature, man against society, and man against man.”

This essay explains why conflict is integral for stories, mentioning that it makes a literary piece exciting enough to maintain the readers’ attention. The author uses Richard Connell’s “ The Most Dangerous Game ” to prove their point and delves into relevant scenes demonstrating different conflicts. For example, the scene where the main character fights against the big waves to reach the island for safety exemplifies the conflict of Man against Nature.

“The film is an excellent example of the perspective of conflict, every scene is thoughtful, and reflects the discrimination and exploitation that the working class society faces.”

The author offers several citations to support their claim that the 1997 Titanic film is more than a romantic tragedy. Putting Rose and Jack’s love story aside, the movie also depicts the differences between social classes that link them to conflict theory. According to the founder of this theory, the leading cause of conflicts is the unequal distribution of power and resources among people.

The essay brings up several film segments that cement these differences, such as the standard rule of “women and children first” when evacuating people during a disaster. Although the tragedy claimed the lives of both lower and upper-class men, the movie conveys an important message that everyone will suffer, regardless of class, in times of calamity.

“The Middle East has been in a state of turmoil since the early 1990’s. Conflicts arose from differences in religion, control over territories, and uneven political distribution. These conflicts were not just between countries, but also within individual countries.”

Although this essay doesn’t reveal the root cause of conflicts in the Middle East, it shows the magnitude of the impact of these fights caused by religious differences, territorial disputes, and political inequality. Logan explains that government instability in the Middle East makes it possible for various terrorist to express their grievances and desires through violence.

“As you start your married life, know that conflicts are a must and communication is the key to solving such issues. When married people see the need to manage interpersonal conflicts rather than ignoring them, their marriage becomes functional and happy.”

Couples usually avoid conflicts in their relationships, but Taylor knows it’s inevitable. A relationship without interpersonal conflict can become weak and often leads to separation. He believes that people who ignore problems to avoid conflicts with their partners develop negative emotions that destroy love. Taylor explains that bringing one’s gender and culture into the conversation is the key to resolving disputes, as it prevents miscommunication and demonstrates equal power.

“By better understanding how conflict arise, and practicing handling such conflict in an assertive way, it can become far less intimidating and be an aspect of work you can learn to manage rather than have it manage you.”

Latoya’s essay focuses on how Chinese people avoid conflicts to promote peace and avoid discord, especially workplace disagreements. She describes workplace conflict as work-related or personal tension between two or more forces with differing values ​​and perspectives.

Latoya mentions three techniques to clear up these issues: stimulating, controlling, and resolving and eliminating disputes. Ultimately, the author believes that every manager must maintain emotional distance and focus on conflict resolution by listening, empathizing, and guiding members who have conflicts.

For help with your essays, check out our round-up of the best essay checkers

7 Prompts for Writing Essays About Conflicts

Conflict is diverse and includes essential features that need to be discussed. For this prompt, focus on the conflict in its universality and explain the four major types of conflict. Identify and explain the causes of various conflict categories. Then, give real-life cases of each so the readers can understand and relate to these examples. You might be interested in these essays about cause and effect and essays about curiosity .

Various factors are considered to find the root cause of conflicts. This prompt focuses on elements that promote intrapersonal conflicts, such as frustration, stress, anxiety, and insecurity. 

Tell your readers about a specific situation where the desire to achieve a goal made you feel various negative emotions. Then share what conflict management style you used to resolve this conflict and peacefully achieve your goals.

Our history is filled with strife between groups rallying to support what they believe is right. Such as the case of World War II, which claimed 35 to 60 million lives. In this essay, write about historical and current conflicts and explain their origins. Then, examine the efforts made by past and present governments to resolve these disputes, including the positive or negative impacts of these conflicts on the world at large.

To give credence to Karl Marx ’s Theory of Conflict, introduce him by speaking about his background and accomplishments. Then, refocus on Conflict Theory’s meaning, importance, and how it’s applied to understand society. Offer studies and cases that prove Conflict Theory’s existence. Then discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using this theory to understand and resolve disagreements.

Intrapersonal conflict refers to disputes within yourself, while interpersonal conflict concerns misunderstandings with others. In your essay, compare and contrast these two types of conflict and present common situations where these would occur. 

For example, interpersonal conflict could be a disagreement with a coworker, whereas intrapersonal conflict could be an internal struggle with your emotions. Then, add tips on how individuals should respond to these conflicts to avoid further damage. You might also like these essays about stress and articles about attitude .

Terrorism is urged by unfair treatment and different beliefs. Tourism is one of the industries most affected when terrorism occurs in a particular area or country. Use this prompt to discuss the typical impacts of terrorism on a location’s travel and tourism industry. Include reliable articles that report on tourism’s decline after the emergence of terrorism and conflicts.

Conflict usually emerges due to cultural differences between individuals or communities. In your essay, speak about how culture plays a vital role in instigating and mitigating conflicts. For example, the American Civil War occurred because of cultural conflicts because of different views on slavery. Look into past cultural conflicts such as these for a compelling historical essay.

If you need help picking your next essay topic, check out our guide on writing an essay about diversity .

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Conflict Essay Topics | Complete Guide to Understanding Conflict And Conflict Resolution

November 6, 2021 by Prasanna

Conflict Essay Topics: Conflict is a natural part of life and is almost unavoidable in any relationship. No matter what we do, it is inevitable that at some point in time, we will have a conflict with someone. However, it is important to remember that regardless of the situation, it is always possible to resolve a conflict in some constructive or meaningful way. In this essay, we shall explore the meaning of conflict, its causes, types, implications and more.

You can also find more  Essay Writing articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

How Do You Define a Conflict?

Conflict can be defined as a disagreement with somebody about something. It can also be defined as a disagreement in thought, opinion, belief, action, inaction or even an emotion. There are also many variations of conflict that we encounter in our day to day lives such as physical conflict, emotional conflict, and intellectual conflict.

What are the Various Types of Conflict?

There are four major types of conflict, and they are as follows:

Intrapersonal Conflict: Intrapersonal conflict is a struggle within oneself. Most people face some kind of internal conflict. This conflict is about who we are and what we want to be. Some examples of internal conflict include: not knowing if you want to be a business person or a stay at home parent, deciding whether or not to go to college, and deciding whether you should pursue someone that you might have feelings for. Moreover, people with social anxiety or depression might be more prone to intrapersonal conflict because they feel like they cannot trust their own feelings and thoughts and this can lead to mental distress.

Interpersonal Conflict: Interpersonal conflict is a state of disagreement between two or more people. It can be either constructive or destructive, and it can be either short-term or long-term. There are many reasons why people may experience interpersonal conflict with others. Some of these include differing opinions, not being able to find common ground, misunderstanding the other person’s perspective, feeling threatened by the other person, and feeling powerless to influence the situation or being unfairly treated.

Intragroup Conflict: Intragroup conflict is a type of interpersonal conflict that occurs within a group. Intragroup conflicts often involve disagreements, tension, and power struggles between group members. The dynamics of intragroup conflict are rooted in the idea that people are intrinsically selfish. The natural tendency for people to act in their own self-interests can lead to conflict within groups. If one individual’s self-interests clash with another person’s self-interests, there is the risk of conflict.

Intergroup Conflict: Intergroup conflict is a type of collective disagreement that is motivated by clashes between two or more groups. In a global context, intergroup conflicts can take other forms, such as violent riots and wars between nations. Intergroup conflict is a serious problem in many parts of the world, which often leads to death and destruction.

What are the 8 Common Causes of Conflict?

It is difficult to predict what will cause conflict. It can be anything from a misunderstanding to a breach of trust. Conflict can even arise out of nothing, but there are some common causes of conflict. These include:

Unclear expectations : It is not uncommon for people to feel frustrated when they are unclear about expectations. This can lead to conflicts because it becomes less clear who is responsible for doing what. However, if expectations are clearly stated, you can avoid many of these conflicts and create a more productive environment.

Lack of communication: In a business setting, lack of communication can lead to misunderstandings between employees. For example, an employee might be unhappy with their role in the company or confused about their job description when the boss never directly mentions it. Furthermore, when employees are unclear about what they are being asked to do, they are bound to make mistakes.

Lack of trust: There are many ways to construct norms of trust in communities. One way is to draw on existing ties or social mechanisms. Another way is to engage in social transactions with strangers. Conflict arises when there are different normative approaches to establishing trust—one based on similarity and the other based on distance.

The loss of power : Many relationships can fall apart when the power balance shifts. When one person loses their job, for example, it can cause resentment and frustration to grow. They may feel that they’re not pulling their weight in the relationship and be resentful towards the other person who is still working. This can lead to a dramatic shift in both dynamics and communication patterns which could eventually lead to conflict.

Lack of respect for one another can cause conflict: One of the main reasons for conflict is a lack of respect. This can happen when one person feels they are not given the respect they deserve by another person. This often leads to anger, resentment, and even violence.

Conflicting interests: Conflicts of interest are common. These conflicts arise when the goals of the individual, group, or company are not aligned with other parties involved.

Personal differences: There are many potential causes of conflict in relationships. One factor that often gets overlooked is the personal differences between people. Understandably, people have different backgrounds, levels of education, interests, and life experiences which can lead to conflict.

Disagreements over values: Values are a major part of our identity. We have them because they help us decide what we want to do and who we want to be. They can be very personal and individualistic, but they can also help us connect with people. Regardless, disagreements over values can cause conflict when it comes to fulfilling certain roles in a society or family unit.

How Do People React to Conflicts?

People usually react to conflicts in one of the following ways:

Trying to calm the situation: When faced with a conflict, the person may try to stop the conflict by trying to calm the situation. The person may also attempt to diffuse the tension by changing the subject of conversation or attempting humour.

Withdrawing from the conflict: People may attempt to avoid a conflict by withdrawing from it. This can help to prevent the escalation of the conflict, which might cause greater harm.

Trying to compromise: Finding a compromise is a useful technique to solve a conflict. Compromising means giving up a little of something so that all involved parties can achieve what they want. We can also say that it means that the interests of both parties are met as much as possible, but may still have some space for disagreement or resistance.

Trying to win the conflict: This is usually the initial agenda for all parties involved in a conflict.

Regardless, conflicts are inevitable, but they can always be managed if they are dealt with in a constructive way.

What are the 6 Difficulties in Resolving a Conflict?

Following are some difficulties that one may face when resolving a conflict:

• Unwilling to Take Responsibility – No one wants to admit they made a mistake as people are unwilling to take responsibility. This stems from the belief that admitting fault will tarnish their reputation. It can also stem from the fear of being ridiculed for taking responsibility for something that wasn’t their fault.
• Resentment – Resentment can affect the way we approach a conflict. Resentment is often a product of feeling unheard, which can make it difficult to listen and compromise with another person.
• Lack of Patience: One’s action or reaction in the heat of the moment can have unintended consequences. This can prevent involved parties from finding a solution that meets their needs.
• Low Self-Esteem : This can cause a conflict to remain unresolved. It can be caused by many factors, including abuse, bullying or harassment. Moreover, low self-esteem can often lead to more serious conditions such as depression and anxiety.
• Disrespect : Disrespect can lead to an escalation in conflicts. This is because it may make people feel like they are not being respected and this can lead to aggression and violence.
• Unwilling to Accept Weakness: There are many reasons people may be unwilling to accept weakness. Some people cannot accept their weaknesses because they believe it will make them feel like a failure. They may also not want to admit that they need help, or that what they’re struggling with is more than what they can handle on their own. Regardless, this can hamper the process of conflict resolution.

Conclusion on Conflict Essay Topics

Conflict is a part of life and it’s something that you’re almost guaranteed to experience in any type of relationship. Whether it be a romantic relationship, family relationship, or just relationships with your friends, conflicts will inevitably arise. Regardless of the type, it is always possible to find a resolution.

FAQs on Conflict Essay

Question 1. What is a conflict?

Answer: Conflict is a disagreement with somebody about something.

Question 2. What is Intrapersonal conflict?

Answer: This type of conflict comes from within yourself, – where you are arguing with your conscience, wondering if you made the right decision.

Question 3. What is Interpersonal conflict?

Answer: This type of conflict arises when you are arguing with someone else, for example if you disagree on what movie to watch or what food to eat with your friend.

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World Peace Essay: Prompts, How-to Guide, & 200+ Topics

Throughout history, people have dreamed of a world without violence, where harmony and justice reign. This dream of world peace has inspired poets, philosophers, and politicians for centuries. But is it possible to achieve peace globally? Writing a world peace essay will help you find the answer to this question and learn more about the topic.

In this article, our custom writing team will discuss how to write an essay on world peace quickly and effectively. To inspire you even more, we have prepared writing prompts and topics that can come in handy.

• ✍️ Writing Guide
• 🦄 Essay Prompts
• ✔️ World Peace Topics
• 🌎 Pacifism Topics
• ✌️ Catchy Essay Titles
• 🕊️ Research Topics on Peace
• 💡 War and Peace Topics
• ☮️ Peace Title Ideas
• 🌐 Peace Language Topics

🔗 References

✍️ how to achieve world peace essay writing guide.

Stuck with your essay about peace? Here is a step-by-step writing guide with many valuable tips to make your paper well-structured and compelling.

1. Research the Topic

The first step in writing your essay on peace is conducting research. You can look for relevant sources in your university library, encyclopedias, dictionaries, book catalogs, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Besides, you can use your lecture notes and textbooks for additional information.

Among the variety of sources that could be helpful for a world peace essay, we would especially recommend checking the Global Peace Index report . It presents the most comprehensive data-driven analysis of current trends in world peace. It’s a credible report by the Institute for Economics and Peace, so you can cite it as a source in your aper.

Here are some other helpful resources where you can find information for your world peace essay:

• United Nations Peacekeeping
• International Peace Institute
• United States Institute of Peace
• European Union Institute for Security Studies
• Stockholm International Peace Research Institute

2. Create an Outline

Outlining is an essential aspect of the essay writing process. It helps you plan how you will connect all the facts to support your thesis statement.

To write an outline for your essay about peace, follow these steps:

• Determine your topic and develop a thesis statement .
• Choose the main points that will support your thesis and will be covered in your paper.
• Organize your ideas in a logical order.
• Think about transitions between paragraphs.

Here is an outline example for a “How to Achieve World Peace” essay. Check it out to get a better idea of how to structure your paper.

• Definition of world peace.
• The importance of global peace.
• Thesis statement: World peace is attainable through combined efforts on individual, societal, and global levels.
• Practive of non-violent communication.
• Development of healthy relationships.
• Promotion of conflict resolution skills.
• Promotion of democracy and human rights.
• Support of peacebuilding initiatives.
• Protection of cultural diversity.
• Encouragement of arms control and non-proliferation.
• Promotion of international law and treaties.
• Support of intercultural dialogue and understanding.
• Restated thesis.
• Call to action.

You can also use our free essay outline generator to structure your world peace essay.

3. Write Your World Peace Essay

Now, it’s time to use your outline to write an A+ paper. Here’s how to do it:

• Start with the introductory paragraph , which states the topic, presents a thesis, and provides a roadmap for your essay. If you need some assistance with this part, try our free introduction generator .
• Your essay’s main body should contain at least 3 paragraphs. Each of them should provide explanations and evidence to develop your argument.
• Finally, in your conclusion , you need to restate your thesis and summarize the points you’ve covered in the paper. It’s also a good idea to add a closing sentence reflecting on your topic’s significance or encouraging your audience to take action. Feel free to use our essay conclusion generator to develop a strong ending for your paper.

4. Revise and Proofread

Proofreading is a way to ensure your essay has no typos and grammar mistakes. Here are practical tips for revising your work:

• Take some time. Leaving your essay for a day or two before revision will give you a chance to look at it from another angle.
• Read out loud. To catch run-on sentences or unclear ideas in your writing, read it slowly and out loud. You can also use our Read My Essay to Me tool.
• Make a checklist . Create a list for proofreading to ensure you do not miss any important details, including structure, punctuation, capitalization, and formatting.
• Ask someone for feedback. It is always a good idea to ask your professor, classmate, or friend to read your essay and give you constructive criticism on the work.
• Note down the mistakes you usually make. By identifying your weaknesses, you can work on them to become a more confident writer.

🦄 World Peace Essay Writing Prompts

Looking for an interesting idea for your world peace essay? Look no further! Use our writing prompts to get a dose of inspiration.

How to Promote Peace in the Community Essay Prompt

Promoting peace in the world always starts in small communities. If people fight toxic narratives, negative stereotypes, and hate crimes, they will build a strong and united community and set a positive example for others.

In your essay on how to promote peace in the community, you can dwell on the following ideas:

• Explain the importance of accepting different opinions in establishing peace in your area.
• Analyze how fighting extremism in all its forms can unite the community and create a peaceful environment.
• Clarify what peace means in the context of your community and what factors contribute to or hinder it.
• Investigate the role of dialogue in resolving conflicts and building mutual understanding in the community.

How to Promote Peace as a Student Essay Prompt

Students, as an active part of society, can play a crucial role in promoting peace at various levels. From educational entities to worldwide conferences, they have an opportunity to introduce the idea of peace for different groups of people.

Check out the following fresh ideas for your essay on how to promote peace as a student:

• Analyze how information campaigns organized by students can raise awareness of peace-related issues.
• Discuss the impact of education in fostering a culture of peace.
• Explore how students can use social media to advocate for a peaceful world.
• Describe your own experience of taking part in peace-promoting campaigns or programs.

How Can We Maintain Peace in Our Society Essay Prompt

Maintaining peace in society is a difficult but achievable task that requires constant attention and effort from all members of society.

We have prepared ideas that can come in handy when writing an essay about how we can maintain peace in our society:

• Investigate the role of tolerance, understanding of different cultures, and respect for religions in promoting peace in society.
• Analyze the importance of peacekeeping organizations.
• Provide real-life examples of how people promote peace.
• Offer practical suggestions for how individuals and communities can work together to maintain peace.

Youth Creating a Peaceful Future Essay Prompt

Young people are the future of any country, as well as the driving force to create a more peaceful world. Their energy and motivation can aid in finding new methods of coping with global hate and violence.

In your essay, you can use the following ideas to show the role of youth in creating a peaceful world:

• Analyze the key benefits of youth involvement in peacekeeping.
• Explain why young people are leading tomorrow’s change today.
• Identify the main ingredients for building a peaceful generation with the help of young people’s initiatives.
• Investigate how adolescent girls can be significant agents of positive change in their communities.

Is World Peace Possible Essay Prompt

Whether or not the world can be a peaceful place is one of the most controversial topics. While most people who hear the question “Is a world without war possible?” will probably answer “no,” others still believe in the goodness of humanity.

To discuss in your essay if world peace is possible, use the following ideas:

• Explain how trade, communication, and technology can promote cooperation and the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
• Analyze the role of international organizations like the United Nations and the European Union in maintaining peace in the world.
• Investigate how economic inequality poses a severe threat to peace and safety.
• Dwell on the key individual and national interests that can lead to conflict and competition between countries.

✔️ World Peace Topics for Essays

To help get you started with writing, here’s a list of 200 topics you can use for your future essTo help get you started with writing a world peace essay, we’ve prepared a list of topics you can use:

• Defining peace
• Why peace is better: benefits of living in harmony
• Is world peace attainable? Theory and historical examples
• Sustainable peace: is peace an intermission of war?
• Peaceful coexistence: how a society can do without wars
• Peaceful harmony or war of all against all: what came first?
• The relationship between economic development and peace
• Peace and Human Nature: Can Humans Live without Conflicts?
• Prerequisites for peace: what nations need to refrain from war?
• Peace as an unnatural phenomenon: why people tend to start a war?
• Peace as a natural phenomenon: why people avoid starting a war?
• Is peace the end of the war or its beginning?
• Hybrid war and hybrid peace
• What constitutes peace in the modern world
• Does two countries’ not attacking each other constitute peace?
• “Cold peace” in the international relations today
• What world religions say about world peace
• Defining peacemaking
• Internationally recognized symbols of peace
• World peace: a dream or a goal?

🌎 Peace Essay Topics on Pacifism

• History of pacifism: how the movement started and developed
• Role of the pacifist movement in the twentieth-century history
• Basic philosophical principles of pacifism
• Pacifism as philosophy and as a movement
• The peace sign: what it means
• How the pacifist movement began: actual causes
• The anti-war movements: what did the activists want?
• The relationship between pacifism and the sexual revolution
• Early pacifism: examples from ancient times
• Is pacifism a religion?
• Should pacifists refrain from any kinds of violence?
• Is the pacifist movement a threat to the national security?
• Can a pacifist work in law enforcement authorities?
• Pacifism and non-violence: comparing and contrasting
• The pacifist perspective on the concept of self-defense
• Pacifism in art: examples of pacifistic works of art
• Should everyone be a pacifist?
• Pacifism and diet: should every pacifist be a vegetarian?
• How pacifists respond to oppression
• The benefits of an active pacifist movement for a country

✌️ Interesting Essay Titles about Peace

• Can the country that won a war occupy the one that lost?
• The essential peace treaties in history
• Should a country that lost a war pay reparations?
• Peace treaties that caused new, more violent wars
• Can an aggressor country be deprived of the right to have an army after losing a war?
• Non-aggression pacts do not prevent wars
• All the countries should sign non-aggression pacts with one another
• Peace and truces: differences and similarities
• Do countries pursue world peace when signing peace treaties?
• The treaty of Versailles: positive and negative outcomes
• Ceasefires and surrenders: the world peace perspective
• When can a country break a peace treaty?
• Dealing with refugees and prisoners of war under peace treaties
• Who should resolve international conflicts?
• The role of the United Nations in enforcing peace treaties
• Truce envoys’ immunities
• What does a country do after surrendering unconditionally?
• A separate peace: the ethical perspective
• Can a peace treaty be signed in modern-day hybrid wars?
• Conditions that are unacceptable in a peace treaty

🕊️ Research Topics on Peace and Conflict Resolution

• Can people be forced to stop fighting?
• Successful examples of peace restoration through the use of force
• Failed attempts to restore peace with legitimate violence
• Conflict resolution vs conflict transformation
• What powers peacemakers should not have
• Preemptive peacemaking: can violence be used to prevent more abuse?
• The status of peacemakers in the international law
• Peacemaking techniques: Gandhi’s strategies
• How third parties can reconcile belligerents
• The role of the pacifist movement in peacemaking
• The war on wars: appropriate and inappropriate approaches to peacemaking
• Mistakes that peacemakers often stumble upon
• The extent of peacemaking : when the peacemakers’ job is done
• Making peace and sustaining it: how peacemakers prevent future conflicts
• The origins of peacemaking
• What to do if peacemaking does not work
• Staying out: can peacemaking make things worse?
• A personal reflection on the effectiveness of peacemaking
• Prospects of peacemaking
• Personal experience of peacemaking

💡 War and Peace Essay Topics

• Counties should stop producing new types of firearms
• Countries should not stop producing new types of weapons
• Mutual assured destruction as a means of sustaining peace
• The role of nuclear disarmament in world peace
• The nuclear war scenario: what will happen to the world?
• Does military intelligence contribute to sustaining peace?
• Collateral damage: analyzing the term
• Can the defenders of peace take up arms?
• For an armed person, is killing another armed person radically different from killing an unarmed one? Ethical and legal perspectives
• Should a healthy country have a strong army?
• Firearms should be banned
• Every citizen has the right to carry firearms
• The correlation between gun control and violence rates
• The second amendment: modern analysis
• Guns do not kill: people do
• What weapons a civilian should never be able to buy
• Biological and chemical weapons
• Words as a weapon: rhetoric wars
• Can a pacifist ever use a weapon?
• Can dropping weapons stop the war?

☮️ Peace Title Ideas for Essays

• How the nuclear disarmament emblem became the peace sign
• The symbolism of a dove with an olive branch
• Native Americans’ traditions of peace declaration
• The mushroom cloud as a cultural symbol
• What the world peace awareness ribbon should look like
• What I would like to be the international peace sign
• The history of the International Day of Peace
• The peace sign as an accessory
• The most famous peace demonstrations
• Hippies’ contributions to the peace symbolism
• Anti-war and anti-military symbols
• How to express pacifism as a political position
• The rainbow as a symbol of peace
• Can a white flag be considered a symbol of peace?
• Examples of the inappropriate use of the peace sign
• The historical connection between the peace sign and the cannabis leaf sign
• Peace symbols in different cultures
• Gods of war and gods of peace: examples from the ancient mythology
• Peace sign tattoo: pros and cons
• Should the peace sign be placed on a national flag?

🌐 Essay Topics about Peace Language

• The origin and historical context of the word “peace”
• What words foreign languages use to denote “peace”
• What words, if any, should a pacifist avoid?
• The pacifist discourse: key themes
• Disintegration language: “us” vs “them”
• How to combat war propaganda
• Does political correctness promote world peace?
• Can an advocate of peace be harsh in his or her speeches?
• Effective persuasive techniques in peace communications and negotiations
• Analyzing the term “world peace”
• If the word “war” is forbidden, will wars stop?
• Is “peacemaking” a right term?
• Talk to the hand: effective and ineffective interpersonal communication techniques that prevent conflicts
• The many meanings of the word “peace”
• The pacifists’ language: when pacifists swear, yell, or insult
• Stressing similarities instead of differences as a tool of peace language
• The portrayal of pacifists in movies
• The portrayals of pacifists in fiction
• Pacifist lyrics: examples from the s’ music
• Poems that supported peace The power of the written word
• Peaceful coexistence: theory and practice
• Under what conditions can humans coexist peacefully?
• “A man is a wolf to another man”: the modern perspective
• What factors prevent people from committing a crime?
• Right for peace vs need for peace
• Does the toughening of punishment reduce crime?
• The Stanford prison experiment: implications
• Is killing natural?
• The possibility of universal love: does disliking always lead to conflicts?
• Basic income and the dynamics of thefts
• Hobbesian Leviathan as the guarantee of peace
• Is state-concentrated legitimate violence an instrument for reducing violence overall?
• Factors that undermine peaceful coexistence
• Living in peace vs living for peace
• The relationship between otherness and peacefulness
• World peace and human nature: the issue of attainability
• The most successful examples of peaceful coexistence
• Lack of peace as lack of communication
• Point made: counterculture and pacifism
• What Woodstock proved to world peace nonbelievers and opponents?
• Woodstock and peaceful coexistence: challenges and successes
• Peace, economics, and quality of life
• Are counties living in peace wealthier? Statistics and reasons
• Profits of peace and profits of war: comparison of benefits and losses
• Can a war improve the economy? Discussing examples
• What is more important for people: having appropriate living conditions or winning a war?
• How wars can improve national economies: the perspective of aggressors and defenders
• Peace obstructers: examples of interest groups that sustained wars and prevented peace
• Can democracies be at war with one another?
• Does the democratic rule in a country provide it with an advantage at war?
• Why wars destroy economies: examples, discussion, and counterarguments
• How world peace would improve everyone’s quality of life
• Peace and war today
• Are we getting closer to world peace? Violence rates, values change, and historical comparison
• The peaceful tomorrow: how conflicts will be resolved in the future if there are no wars
• Redefining war: what specific characteristics today’s wars have that make them different from previous centuries’ wars
• Why wars start today: comparing and contrasting the reasons for wars in the modern world to historical examples
• Subtle wars: how two countries can be at war with each other without having their armies collide in the battlefield
• Cyber peace: how cyberwars can be stopped
• Information as a weapon: how information today lands harder blows than bombs and missiles
• Information wars: how the abundance of information and public access to it have not, nonetheless, eliminated propaganda
• Peace through defeating: how ISIS is different from other states, and how can its violence be stopped
• Is world peace a popular idea? Do modern people mostly want peace or mainly wish to fight against other people and win?
• Personal contributions to world peace
• What can I do for attaining world peace? Personal reflection
• Respect as a means of attaining peace: why respecting people is essential not only on the level of interpersonal communications but also on the level of social good
• Peacefulness as an attitude: how one’s worldview can prevent conflicts
• Why a person engages in insulting and offending: analysis of psychological causes and a personal perspective
• A smile as an agent of peace: how simple smiling to people around you contributes to peacefulness
• Appreciating otherness: how one can learn to value diversity and avoid xenophobia
• Peace and love: how the two are inherently interconnected in everyone’s life
• A micro-level peacemaker: my experiences of resolving conflicts and bringing peace
• Forgiveness for the sake of peace: does forgiving other people contribute to peaceful coexistence or promote further conflicts?
• Noble lies: is it acceptable for a person to lie to avoid conflicts and preserve peace?
• What should a victim do? Violent and non-violent responses to violence
• Standing up for the weak : is it always right to take the side of the weakest?
• Self-defense, overwhelming emotions, and witnessing horrible violence: could I ever shoot another person?
• Are there “fair” wars, and should every war be opposed?
• Protecting peace: could I take up arms to prevent a devastating war?
• Reporting violence: would I participate in sending a criminal to prison?
• The acceptability of violence against perpetrators: personal opinion
• Nonviolent individual resistance to injustice
• Peace is worth it: why I think wars are never justified
• How I sustain peace in my everyday life

Learn more on this topic:

• If I Could Change the World Essay: Examples and Writing Guide
• Ending the Essay: Conclusions
• Choosing and Narrowing a Topic to Write About
• Introduction to Research
• How the U.S. Can Help Humanity Achieve World Peace
• Ten Steps to World Peace
• How World Peace is Possible
• World Peace Books and Articles
• World Peace and Nonviolence
• The Leader of World Peace Essay
• UNO and World Peace Essay
• Share to Facebook
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• Share to email

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A very, very good paragraph. thanks

Peace and conflict studies actually is good field because is dealing on how to manage the conflict among the two state or country.

Keep it up. Our world earnestly needs peace

A very, very good paragraph.

December 2, 2021

Peace Is More Than War’s Absence, and New Research Explains How to Build It

A new project measures ways to promote positive social relations among groups

By Peter T. Coleman , Allegra Chen-Carrel & Vincent Hans Michael Stueber

PeopleImages/Getty Images

Today, the misery of war is all too striking in places such as Syria, Yemen, Tigray, Myanmar and Ukraine. It can come as a surprise to learn that there are scores of sustainably peaceful societies around the world, ranging from indigenous people in the Xingu River Basin in Brazil to countries in the European Union. Learning from these societies, and identifying key drivers of harmony, is a vital process that can help promote world peace.

Unfortunately, our current ability to find these peaceful mechanisms is woefully inadequate. The Global Peace Index (GPI) and its complement the Positive Peace Index (PPI) rank 163 nations annually and are currently the leading measures of peacefulness. The GPI, launched in 2007 by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP), was designed to measure negative peace , or the absence of violence, destructive conflict, and war. But peace is more than not fighting. The PPI, launched in 2009, was supposed to recognize this and track positive peace , or the promotion of peacefulness through positive interactions like civility, cooperation and care.

Yet the PPI still has many serious drawbacks. To begin with, it continues to emphasize negative peace, despite its name. The components of the PPI were selected and are weighted based on existing national indicators that showed the “strongest correlation with the GPI,” suggesting they are in effect mostly an extension of the GPI. For example, the PPI currently includes measures of factors such as group grievances, dissemination of false information, hostility to foreigners, and bribes.

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The index also lacks an empirical understanding of positive peace. The PPI report claims that it focuses on “positive aspects that create the conditions for a society to flourish.” However, there is little indication of how these aspects were derived (other than their relationships with the GPI). For example, access to the internet is currently a heavily weighted indicator in the PPI. But peace existed long before the internet, so is the number of people who can go online really a valid measure of harmony?

The PPI has a strong probusiness bias, too. Its 2021 report posits that positive peace “is a cross-cutting facilitator of progress, making it easier for businesses to sell.” A prior analysis of the PPI found that almost half the indicators were directly related to the idea of a “Peace Industry,” with less of a focus on factors found to be central to positive peace such as gender inclusiveness, equity and harmony between identity groups.

A big problem is that the index is limited to a top-down, national-level approach. The PPI’s reliance on national-level metrics masks critical differences in community-level peacefulness within nations, and these provide a much more nuanced picture of societal peace . Aggregating peace data at the national level, such as focusing on overall levels of inequality rather than on disparities along specific group divides, can hide negative repercussions of the status quo for minority communities.

To fix these deficiencies, we and our colleagues have been developing an alternative approach under the umbrella of the Sustaining Peace Project . Our effort has various components , and these can provide a way to solve the problems in the current indices. Here are some of the elements:

Evidence-based factors that measure positive and negative peace. The peace project began with a comprehensive review of the empirical studies on peaceful societies, which resulted in identifying 72 variables associated with sustaining peace. Next, we conducted an analysis of ethnographic and case study data comparing “peace systems,” or clusters of societies that maintain peace with one another, with nonpeace systems. This allowed us to identify and measure a set of eight core drivers of peace. These include the prevalence of an overarching social identity among neighboring groups and societies; their interconnections such as through trade or intermarriage; the degree to which they are interdependent upon one another in terms of ecological, economic or security concerns; the extent to which their norms and core values support peace or war; the role that rituals, symbols and ceremonies play in either uniting or dividing societies; the degree to which superordinate institutions exist that span neighboring communities; whether intergroup mechanisms for conflict management and resolution exist; and the presence of political leadership for peace versus war.

A core theory of sustaining peace . We have also worked with a broad group of peace, conflict and sustainability scholars to conceptualize how these many variables operate as a complex system by mapping their relationships in a causal loop diagram and then mathematically modeling their core dynamics This has allowed us to gain a comprehensive understanding of how different constellations of factors can combine to affect the probabilities of sustaining peace.

Bottom-up and top-down assessments . Currently, the Sustaining Peace Project is applying techniques such as natural language processing and machine learning to study markers of peace and conflict speech in the news media. Our preliminary research suggests that linguistic features may be able to distinguish between more and less peaceful societies. These methods offer the potential for new metrics that can be used for more granular analyses than national surveys.

We have also been working with local researchers from peaceful societies to conduct interviews and focus groups to better understand the in situ dynamics they believe contribute to sustaining peace in their communities. For example in Mauritius , a highly multiethnic society that is today one of the most peaceful nations in Africa, we learned of the particular importance of factors like formally addressing legacies of slavery and indentured servitude, taboos against proselytizing outsiders about one’s religion, and conscious efforts by journalists to avoid divisive and inflammatory language in their reporting.

Today, global indices drive funding and program decisions that impact countless lives, making it critical to accurately measure what contributes to socially just, safe and thriving societies. These indices are widely reported in news outlets around the globe, and heads of state often reference them for their own purposes. For example, in 2017 , Honduran President Juan Orlando Hernandez, though he and his country were mired in corruption allegations, referenced his country’s positive increase on the GPI by stating, “Receiving such high praise from an institute that once named this country the most violent in the world is extremely significant.” Although a 2019 report on funding for peace-related projects shows an encouraging shift towards supporting positive peace and building resilient societies, many of these projects are really more about preventing harm, such as grants for bolstering national security and enhancing the rule of law.

The Sustaining Peace Project, in contrast, includes metrics for both positive and negative peace, is enhanced by local community expertise, and is conceptually coherent and based on empirical findings. It encourages policy makers and researchers to refocus attention and resources on initiatives that actually promote harmony, social health and positive reciprocity between groups. It moves away from indices that rank entire countries and instead focuses on identifying factors that, through their interaction, bolster or reduce the likelihood of sustaining peace. It is a holistic perspective.  

Tracking peacefulness across the globe is a highly challenging endeavor. But there is great potential in cooperation between peaceful communities, researchers and policy makers to produce better methods and metrics. Measuring peace is simply too important to get only half-right. 

United States Institute of Peace

National high school essay contest.

USIP previously partnered with the American Foreign Service Association (AFSA) on the annual National High School Essay Contest. The contest each year engaged high school students in learning and writing about issues of peace and conflict, encouraging appreciation for diplomacy’s role in building partnerships that can advance peacebuilding and protect national security. 

2023 National High School Essay Contest

The American Foreign Service Association’s national high school essay contest completed its twenty-third year with over 400 submissions from 44 states. Three randomized rounds of judging produced this year’s winner, Justin Ahn, a junior from Deerfield Academy in Deerfield, Massachusetts. In his essay, “Mending Bridges: U.S.-Vietnam Reconciliation from 1995 to Today,” Ahn focuses on the successful reconciliation efforts by the Foreign Service in transforming U.S.-Vietnam relations from post-war tension to close economic and strategic partnership.

Ahn will travel to Washington, D.C. to meet with a member of the Department of State’s leadership and receive a full tuition scholarship to an educational voyage with Semester at Sea.

Niccolo Duina was this year’s runner-up. He is currently a junior at Pulaski Academy in Little Rock, Arkansas. Duina will be attending the international diplomacy program of the National Student Leadership Conference this summer.

There were eight honorable mentions:

• Santiago Castro-Luna – Chevy Chase, Maryland
• Dante Chittenden – Grimes, Iowa 
• Merle Hezel – Denver, Colorado
• Adarsh Khullar – Villa Hills, Kentucky
• Nicholas Nall – Little Rock, Arkansas
• Ashwin Telang – West Windsor, New Jersey
• Himani Yarlagadda – Northville, Michigan 
• Sophia Zhang – San Jose, California

Congratulations! We thank all students and teachers who took the time to research and become globally engaged citizens who care about diplomacy, development and peacebuilding.

2023 National High School Essay Contest Topic

In 2024, the U.S. Foreign Service will celebrate its 100th birthday. The Foreign Service is an important element of the American approach to peacebuilding around the world. Over the last century, U.S. diplomats have been involved in some of the most significant events in history — making decisions on war and peace, responding to natural disasters and pandemics, facilitating major treaties, and more.

As AFSA looks back on their century-long history, we invite you to do the same. This year, students are asked to explore a topic that touches upon this important history and sheds light on how vital it is for America to have a robust professional corps focused on diplomacy, development and peace in the national interest.

In your essay, you will select a country or region in which the U.S. Foreign Service has been involved in at any point since 1924 and describe — in 1,500 words or less — how the Foreign Service was successful or unsuccessful in advancing American foreign policy goals, including promoting peace, in this country/region and propose ways in which it might continue to improve those goals in the coming years.

Contest deadline: April 3, 2023

Download the study guide for the 2023 National High School Essay Contest. This study guide provides students with a basic introduction to the topic and some additional context that can assist them in answering the question. It includes the essay question, prizes and rules for the contest; an introduction to diplomacy and peacebuilding; key terms; topics and areas students might explore; and a list of other useful resources.

Learn more about the contest rules and how to submit your essay on the American Foreign Service Association’s contest webpage .

2022 National High School Essay Contest

Katherine Lam, a freshman from University High School in Tucson, Arizona, is the 2022 National High School Essay Contest winner. In her essay, “Competition and Coaction in Ethiopia: U.S. and Chinese Partnerships for International Stabilization,” Lam focuses on how the Foreign Service has partnered with other U.S. government agencies, nongovernmental organizations and — most notably — China to promote peace and development in Ethiopia. Lam will travel to Washington, D.C., to meet with a member of the U.S. Department of State’s leadership and gain full tuition for an educational voyage with Semester at Sea.

Olivia Paulsen was this year’s runner-up. She is a currently a junior receiving a home-schooled education in Concord, Massachusetts. Paulsen will be attending the international diplomacy program of the National Student Leadership Conference this summer.

The 2022 honorable mentions were: Josh Diaz (Little Rock, AR); Grace Hartman (Bethlehem, PA); Elena Higuchi (Irvine, CA); Ovea Kaushik (Oklahoma City, OK); Evan Lindemann (Palm Desert, CA); Percival Liu (Tokyo, Japan); Alexander Richter (San Jose, CA); and Gavin Sun (Woodbury, MN).

USIP congratulates all the winners of the 2022 National High School Essay Contest.

Partnerships for Peace in a Multipolar Era

The current multipolar era poses challenges for U.S. foreign policy but also provides new opportunities for partnership across world powers—including emerging great powers like China and Russia—to build peace in conflict-affected countries. Describe a current situation where American diplomats and peacebuilders are working with other world powers, as well as local and/or regional actors, in a conflict-affected country to champion democracy, promote human rights, and/or resolve violent conflict.    A successful essay will lay out the strategies and tactics U.S. Foreign Service Officers and American peacebuilders are employing to build successful partnerships with other world and regional powers and with local actors in the chosen current situation.  The essay will also describe specific ways that these partnerships are helping to promote stability and build peace.

Contest deadline: April 4, 2022

Download the study guide for the 2022 National High School Essay Contest. This study guide provides students with a basic introduction to the topic and some additional context that can assist them in answering the question. It includes the essay question, prizes, and rules for the contest; an introduction to diplomacy and peacebuilding; key terms; topics and areas students might explore; and a list of other useful resources.

Learn more about the contest rules and how to submit your essay on the American Foreign Service Association’s contest webpage.  

2021 National High School Essay Contest

Mariam Parray, a sophomore from Pulaski Academy in Little Rock, Arkansas, is the 2021 National High School Essay Contest winner. In her essay, “Diplomats and Peacebuilders in Tunisia: Paving the Path to Democracy,” Ms. Parray focuses on how the Foreign Service partnered with other U.S. government agencies and NGOs to effect a peaceful democratic transition in Tunisia. She emphasizes the importance of multifaceted approaches as well as the importance of bringing marginalized groups into the fold. Mariam will travel to Washington to meet with a member of the Department of State’s leadership and will also gain a full tuition to an educational voyage with Semester at Sea. Harrison McCarty was this year’s runner-up. Coincidentally, he is also a sophomore from Pulaski Academy in Little Rock, Arkansas. Harrison will be attending the international diplomacy program of the National Student Leadership Conference this summer. The 2021 honorable mentions were: Louisa Eaton (Wellesley, MA); Samuel Goldston (Brooklyn, NY); Lucy King (Bainbridge Island, WA); Haan Jun Lee (Jakarta, Indonesia); Khaled Maalouf (Beirut, Lebanon); Madeleine Shaw (Bloomington, IN); Allison Srp (Austin, MN); and Daniel Zhang (Cortland, NY).

USIP congratulates all the winners of the 2021 National High School Essay Contest. 

Diplomats and Peacebuilders: Powerful Partners

What characteristics lead to a successful effort by diplomats and peacebuilders to mediate or prevent violent conflict? The United States Foreign Service—often referred to as America’s first line of defense—works to prevent conflict from breaking out abroad and threats from coming to our shores. Peacebuilders work on the ground to create the conditions for peace and resolve conflicts where they are most needed. 

Successful essays will identify, in no more than 1,250 words, a situation where diplomats worked on a peacebuilding initiative with partners from the country/region in question, nongovernmental organizations, and other parts of the U.S. government, and then go on to analyze what characteristics and approaches made the enterprise a success.  

Contest deadline: April 5, 2021

Download the study guide for the 2021 National High School Essay Contest. This study guide provides students with a basic introduction to the topic and some additional context that can assist them in answering the question. It includes key terms in conflict management and peacebuilding and examples of peacebuilding initiatives, with reflection questions for independent learners to dig more deeply or for teachers to encourage class reflection and discussion. We hope this study guide will be a useful resource for educators and students participating in this contest, and for educators who want their students to learn more about this year’s contest topic.

2020 National High School Essay Contest

Jonas Lorincz, a junior from Marriotts Ridge High School in Marriottsville, MD, is the 2020 National High School Essay Contest winner. In his essay, “Verification, Mediation, and Peacebuilding: The Many Roles of the U.S. Foreign Service in Kosovo,” Mr. Lorincz focused on the importance of interagency cooperation in mediating the crisis in Kosovo – primarily looking into how diplomats and other civilian agencies engaged in peacebuilding throughout the conflict.

Claire Burke was this year’s runner-up. She is a junior at Mill Valley High School in Shawnee, KS. 

The 2020 honorable mentions were: Grace Cifuentes (Concord, CA), Grace Lannigan (Easton, CT), Seryung Park (Tenafly, NJ), Vynateya Purimetla (Troy, MI), David Richman (Norfolk, VA), Madeleine Shaw (Bloomington, IN), Sara Smith (Fargo, ND), and Jack Viscuso (Northport, NY).  USIP congratulates all the winners of the 2020 National High School Essay Contest. 

2020 National High School Essay Contest Topic

Why Diplomacy and Peacebuilding Matter

How do members of the Foreign Service work with other civilian parts of the U.S. Government to promote peace, national security and economic prosperity?

Qualified essays focused on a specific challenge to U.S. peace and prosperity and included one example of the work of the Foreign Service and one or more examples of collaboration between America’s diplomats and other civilian (i.e. non-military) U.S. Government agencies or organizations.

2019 National High School Essay Contest

In its 21st year, the American Foreign Service Association (AFSA)’s National High School Essay Contest encouraged students to think about how and why the United States engages globally to build peace, and about the role that the Foreign Service plays in advancing U.S. national security and economic prosperity.

For the second year in a row, the National High School Essay Contest focused on an important aspect of operating in countries affected by or vulnerable to violent conflict: effective coordination of the many different foreign policy tools the United States has at its disposal. Whether you were addressing the prompt for a second year or new to the contest, the contest will have challenged you to expand your understanding of the role of the Foreign Service and other actors in foreign policy, identify case studies, and provide a sophisticated analysis in a concise manner.

The essay prompt and a helpful study guide are included below; you can find out more information about the rules and how to submit by checking out AFSA’s essay contest page .

2019 Essay Question

The United States has many tools to advance and defend its foreign policy and national security interests around the world—from diplomatic approaches pursued by members of the Foreign Service, to the range of options available to the U.S. military. In countries affected by or vulnerable to violent conflict, peacebuilding tools are important additions to the national security toolkit.

In such complex environments, cooperation across agencies and approaches is challenging, but it can also blend knowledge and skills in ways that strengthen the overall effort to establish a lasting peace. On the other hand, lack of coordination can lead to duplication of effort, inefficient use of limited resources and unintended consequences.

In a 1,000-1,250-word essay, identify two cases—one you deem successful and one you deem unsuccessful—where the U.S. pursued an integrated approach to build peace in a conflict-affected country. Analyze and compare these two cases, addressing the following questions:

• What relative strengths did members of the Foreign Service and military actors bring to the table? What peacebuilding tools were employed? Ultimately, what worked or did not work in each case?
• How was each situation relevant to U.S. national security interests?
• What lessons may be drawn from these experiences for the pursuit of U.S. foreign policy more broadly?

Download the study guide for the 2019 AFSA National High School Essay Contest

2018 National High School Essay Contest

Jennifer John from Redwood City, CA is the 2018 National High School Essay Contest winner, surpassing close to 1,000 other submissions. Her essay examined to what extent U.S. interagency efforts in Iraq and Bosnia were successful in building peace. Aislinn Niimi from Matthews, NC was the runner up.

The 2018 honorable mentions were: Alex, DiCenso (North Kingstown, RI),Alexandra Soo (Franklin, MI), Caroline Bellamy (Little Rock AR), Colin LeFerve (Indianapolis, IN), Elizabeth Kam (Burlingham, CA), Emma Singh (Tenafly NJ), Emma Chambers (Little Rock AR),  Francesca Ciampa (Brooksville, ME), Greta Bunce (Franktown, VA), Isaac Che (Mount Vernon OH), Isabel Davis (Elk River MN), Katrina Espinoza (Watsonvile, CA), Molly Ehrig (Bethlehem, PA), Payton McGoldrick (Bristow, VA), Rachel Russell (Cabin John, MD), Sarah Chapman (Tucson, AZ), Shalia Lothe (Glen Allen VA), Sohun Modha (San Jose CA), Suhan Kacholia (Chandler, AZ), Supriya Sharma (Brewster, NY), Sydney Adams (Fort Wayne, IN), Tatum Smith (Little Rock AR), and William Milne (Fort Wayne, IN).  

2017 National High School Essay Contest

Nicholas Deparle, winner of the 2017 AFSA National High School Essay Contest, comes from Sidwell Friends School in Washington DC. A rising senior at the time, Mr. Deparle covers the Internally Displaced Persons crisis in Iraq and potential ideas to help resolve the issue.  Read his winning essay here . Mr. Manuel Feigl, a graduate of Brashier Middle College Charter High School in Simpsonville, SC took second place.

This year there were twenty honorable mentions: Mohammed Abuelem ( Little Rock, Ark.), Lucas Aguayo-Garber (Worcester, Mass.), Rahul Ajmera (East Williston, N.Y.), Taylor Gregory (Lolo, Mont.), Rachel Hildebrand (Sunnyvale, Calif.), Ryan Hulbert (Midland Park, N.J.), India Kirssin (Mason, Ohio), Vaibhav Mangipudy (Plainsboro, N.J.), William Marsh (Pittsburgh, Penn.), Zahra Nasser (Chicago, Ill.), Elizabeth Nemec (Milford, N.J.), David Oks (Ardsley, N.Y.), Max Pumilia (Greenwood Village, Colo.), Nikhil Ramaswamy (Plano, Texas), Aditya Sivakumar (Beaverton, Ore.), Donovan Stuard (Bethlehem, Penn.), Rachel Tanczos (Danielsville, Penn.), Isabel Ting (San Ramon, Calif.), Kimberley Tran (Clayton, Mo.), and Chenwei Wang (Walnut, Calif.).

2017 Essay Contest Topic

According to the United Nations, 65 million people worldwide have left their homes to seek safety elsewhere due to violence, conflict, persecution, or human rights violations. The majority of these people are refugees or internally displaced persons (IDPs).

Imagine you are a member of the U.S. Foreign Service —– a diplomat working to promote peace, support prosperity, and protect American citizens while advancing the interests of the United States abroad – and are now assigned to the U.S. embassy in one of these four countries.

• Turkey (Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs)
• Kenya (Bureau of African Affairs)
• Afghanistan (Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs)
• Iraq (Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs)

Your task is to provide recommendations to address the refugee/IDP crisis facing the country in which you are now posted. Using the resources available to you as a member of the Foreign Service, write a memo to your Ambassador outlining how the United States might help address the current unprecedented levels of displacement. You may choose to address issues related to the causes of refugee crisis, or to focus on the humanitarian crisis in your host country.

A qualifying memo will be 1,000-1,250 words and will answer the following questions:

• How does the crisis challenge U.S. interests in the country you are posted and more broadly?
• Specifically outline the steps you propose the U.S. should take to tackle the roots or the consequences of the crisis, and explain how it would help solve the issue or issues you are examining. How will your efforts help build peace or enhance stability?
• How do you propose, from your embassy/post of assignment, to foster U.S. government interagency cooperation and cooperation with the host-country government to address these issues?  Among U.S. government agencies, consider U.S. Agency for International Development, the Foreign Commercial Service and the U.S. Institute of Peace.

Memo Template

TO: Ambassador ______________________

FROM: Only use your first name here

RE: Think of this as your title, make sure to include the country you are writing about

Here you want to lay out the problem, define criteria by which you will be deciding the best steps the U.S. could take, and include a short sentence or two on your final recommendation. Embassy leadership is very busy and reads many memos a day —– they should be able to get the general ““gist”” of your ideas by reading this section.

Background:

This section should provide any background information about the crisis or conflict relevant to your proposed policy. Here, you should mention why the issue is important to U.S. interests, especially peace and security.

Proposed Steps:

This is where you outline your proposed policy. Be specific in describing how the U.S. might address this issue and how these steps can contribute to peace and security. Include which organizations you propose partnering with and why.

Recommendation:

This is where you write your final recommendations for embassy leadership. Think of this as a closing paragraph.

Companion Guide for the 2017 National High School Essay Contest

It is no easy task to jump into the role of a diplomat, especially when confronted by such an urgent crisis. USIP, in consultation with AFSA, developed a guide to provide a basic introduction to the topic and some additional context that can assist you in answering the question, while still challenging you to develop your own unique response. As such, this guide should be used as a starting point to your own research and as you ultimately prepare a compelling memo outlining recommendations the U.S. government should follow to respond to the refugee and IDP crisis.

In the guide you will find: insights into the role of the Foreign Service; country, organization, and key-term briefs to provide a foundational understanding; and a list of other useful resources. Download the Companion Guide for the 2017 National High School Essay Contest (.pdf).

2016 National High School Essay Contest

USIP first partnered with AFSA for the 2016 contest and was pleased to welcome winner Dylan Borne to Washington in August. His paper describes his role as an economic officer in the U.S. Agency for International Development’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance. He writes about promoting education for girls in Afghanistan through on-line courses and dispersal of laptops. Read his winning essay (.pdf).

Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Rwanda genocide, libya crisis.

In the world there have been many conflicts in human interactions. These usually result from struggle for getting access and control over various natural resources such as land, minerals and water among others and due to differing political interests. There are usually disagreements between the parties involved which sometimes lead to wars.

When these wars arise, sometimes the member parties require external intervention in bringing it to an end. There are various means of preventing arise of conflicts. The method of approach to each conflict is usually different from each other.

This is mainly due to the root cause of the conflict in reference to internal and external factors and the possible consequences of the intervention to the parties involved, citizen and the world as a whole. Thus in undertaking any intervention, it is good to observe the best way out of the conflict.

This paper seeks to look into peace and conflict resolution taking critical analysis of the cases in Rwanda and Libya. It is to evaluate whether intervention by external organizations such as the UN was necessary citing the similarity and differences in both cases.

The Rwandan genocide was as a result of conflict between the Hutus and the Tutsi. There had been power competition in Rwanda with the tribe in power being oppressive. It was easy to identify the ethnicity of a person from the national identification card. There had been other conflicts before the genocide that left many people dead. They played significant role in dividing the people in ethnic lines.

Rwanda was a dictatorial country by the end of 1980’s. There were even regulations restricting interaction between the Hutus and Tutsi for example in the military forces. There were many refugees outside Rwanda who were denied access back to their mother country.

This led them to organize themselves into various groups and find their way back. These troops such as the Rwandan patriotic front attacked Rwandan government from outside the country in 1990-1992. This led to the rise of more ethnic tensions, displacement and the death of so many Tutsi.

The death of the Rwandan president in 1994 from an assassination led to the eruption of the massacre. The Hutus attacked the Tutsi killing them. In response to the attacks, the Rwandan patriotic front fought for about three months to overcome the Hutus. This led to more than half a million people dying. There were meeting on how to settle the disagreement in Tanzania before the genocide.

France was observed to take side in support of the government. The international intervention to stop the genocide was not present despite the information about the planning. This led to the killings of many civilians in respect to the tribe they belonged to. This was because there was information about the planning of the massacre yet nothing significant was done.

Muamar Gaddafi has been the leader in Libya for over forty years. During this time he has strengthened his political strength by appointing selected member to be in charge of crucial sectors of his government. There has been uneven distribution of resources and power. This led to the emergence of rival groups. The country is well developed.

There have been the revolution movements in most of the North African nations aimed at initiating change in the governance but stopped when it landed on Libya. There was a delay in provision of housing by the government to the citizens and allegations of misuse of power that led to the protest.

In response to the protest Gadaffi used his military on the civilians. The rebels on the other hand started fighting aiming to capturing the oil towns. This has led to the death of many in the struggle for power.

The civil fighting in Libya has attracted the intervention of the western country. These countries have deployed military intervention in Libya to help in calming the situation. The military intervention was backed up by the United Nations. This intervention has led to the destruction of many properties.

In the case of Libya, other means of solving the problem could have been used with the military intervention being the last option. Despite the intervention bringing peace in the country, there are many other repercussions that follow. This is evident in cases of Iraq and Afghanistan.

There have been intentions by the some countries arming the rebels with more weapons. This step is not right as it is likely to encourage the continuous persistent and development of the war. This means that more people are to lose their lives and that this will create more and more separation (Simpson 1).

The civil wars in Rwanda and Libya have similarity. In both there were specific persons who were at power and denied the others their rights. This led to the emergence of opposition and eventually civil war which caused loss of lives to many. In the Rwanda genocide, there was no intervention by the United Nations despite the information about the planning. In the Libya crisis, the United Nation intervention was very fast.

It has taken sides and though intervention is good, on the other side it has its repercussions. The bloodshed in Libya is less than that of the Rwandan genocide with both parties armed with warfare machinery such as grenade and missile launchers.

The intent of civil war in Rwanda was due to ethnical differences which is not the case in Libya. There are argument that the quick intervention is based on the oil that is present in Libya and the lack of cooperation between Gaddafi and the west.

Rwanda. Rwanda: How the genocide happened . BBC, 2008. Web.

Simpson, John. Halt to rebel advancing creates Libya divide . New Africa, 2011. Web.

• The Long Years of Fighting with Piracy: Evaluating the Changes
• Fareed Zakaria: The Post-American World
• Genocide in the "Ghost of Rwanda" Documentary
• Muammar Gaddafi’s Death: Scene and Dilemma
• Muammar Gaddafi Deserved a Private Death
• History and current state of nuclear proliferation in Asia
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
• Conflict between India, Pakistan, China and Kashmir
• Humanitarian Intervention in Libya
• The United Nations in Africa
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, May 3). Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention. https://ivypanda.com/essays/peace-and-conflict-resolution-essay-2/

"Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention." IvyPanda , 3 May 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/peace-and-conflict-resolution-essay-2/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention'. 3 May.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention." May 3, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/peace-and-conflict-resolution-essay-2/.

1. IvyPanda . "Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention." May 3, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/peace-and-conflict-resolution-essay-2/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Peace and Conflict Resolution: External Intervention." May 3, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/peace-and-conflict-resolution-essay-2/.

CENTRE FOR PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES

Student Blog: ‘Debates in Peace & Conflict’

What are the most pressing debates in peace and conflict studies today? In this blog, third-year IR students (of IR3048 and IR3038) engage critically with diverse topics of peace and conflict. The blogs are purely reflective, and Dr Malaka Shwaikh recommended using non-academic resources and to rely as much as possible on the discussion done within tutorials and during external speakers sessions. The blogs cover several thought-provoking topics from reflecting on ‘white saviourism’, to how linguistic concepts such as resilience and empowerment may lead to more harm than good, and questioning the role of the UN in peacekeeping today.

By Laura Hampton

The state of ‘peace’ in Northern Ireland (NI) following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 remains fragile with the issue of justice largely unaddressed. Riots at the site of peace walls are totemic signposts of a state that hasn’t moved far in pursuing justice. This blog will reflect on the question; can peace be maintained while issues of justice remain unaddressed? Show More

While the agreement has enabled a generation to grow up out with the troubles and the violent scenes which grasped the country for the 30 years prior. It has far from solved grievances surrounding justice, leaving NI in a fragile state, with riots such as that illustrated above exhibiting the irony of the stability of peace. The Agreement has effectively placed a band aid over wounds of victims and their families in terms of justice, and it is no surprise those wounds become unearthed is ways that directly impact the state of peace. Can this be classed as a ‘bad peace’ or is such conflict inevitable in a post-conflict peace society?

In an article surrounding ‘No justice, No peace’ and the Black Lives Matter protests, the study noted that the failure of efforts in dialogue between activists and the police in pursuit of justice must be recognised as ‘intrinsic to the situation’ (Wahl, 2017, p. 31) as opposed to a failure of initiative on either part.  Applying this lens to the NI situation would lean towards viewing the problem of justice and instability as inevitable within the state, with each community struggling to engage in any form of dialogue with their opposing group.

As a young person growing up in NI, I feel the system’s complexities cannot be disregarded as intrinsic. While they are no doubt complex, this mural along one Belfast’s peace walls goes some way in providing a perspective through which justice can be strived for.

A peace wall mural along the Cupar way in Belfast which divides Loyalist and Catholic communities. The mural has the quotation “Peace by Piece” written across it (The Guardian, 2012)

There are many metaphorical ‘bricks’ which separate NI’s communities and form walls, whether it be education, justice, sport or language. The only way for such a wall to come down, both metaphorically and physically is for cross community collaboration to occur on less contentious issues first. This would enable a move towards a more cohesive and inclusive society in general which is more likely to then approach the issues of justice or victims in a productive way.

Yet amidst a background of diametrically opposed parties dominating the executive, and middle ground views being marginalised, it seems collaboration would be totemic of one side ‘giving in’ to the other. With communities and education segregated there are not many platforms for cross community cohesion. Therefore, while it is no doubt complex, a ‘Peace by Piece’ approach seems the only way some progress might be made on moving communities closer to dialogue and thus inadvertently closer to achieving some form of justice. Regardless of what lens or approach is taken, 24 years on from the agreement one fact stands true: peace will not be sustainably attained in NI until issues of justice are addressed.

Riot taking place at a peace gate on Lanark Way, Belfast. The gate bears the quote “There was never a good war or a bad peace” written across it while a rioter stands poised in the foreground with a petrol bomb in hand ready to throw over the gate (Belfast Telegraph, 2021)

Discussion on Orientalism – stereotypes and clichés upon Asian people

Orientalism signifies the description of the eastern impression from the perspective of westerners. Began with the phase of colonialism, the image generator from the west, albeit might not preserve comprehensive knowledge upon the eastern culture they depicted, often utilize western value system to reckon the culture and social norms in eastern domain, especially when it comes to the field of religion and traditions. Thereby, derived from the topic of orientalism, it is normal to detect numerous misunderstanding and stereotypes in the western narratives estimating the orient world. Show More

Besides the orientalism in the academic context, it also appears in contemporary real world. One of the corresponding misconceptions is the “Smart Asian” image as shown in the picture i.e., Asian students, from the perspective of some westerners, must be smart and obedient: they appear to be talented in mathematics and often behave like a nerd. Ironically, quite on the contrary, in the film Crazy Rich Asians , Asian people were described as dandies who spend money like paper which might be related to the increasing flourishment in Asian tourism market, i.e., more Asians are able to afford trips abroad. Both of these images are related to a certain level of stereotypes even though they convey contradictory messages. This paradox gets me think and reflect about the essential role played by modern media in shaping people’s opinions towards different culture. Are French people all incorrigibly romantic or should English people all be so pedantic? In films and social media, a certain group of people construct certain “memes” which consolidates and even create the stereotypes and misunderstandings.

Apart from the “Smart Asian” and “Rich Asian”, some of my Asian friends of mine have experienced some biased judgment abroad when discussing political issues with some western people. Those western interpreters maintain the view that democracy institution is superior and suspect my friends don’t know about individual freedom which is quite offensive and irresponsible when one simply judges one political phenomenon without consideration of certain national status quo. This is rather alike to the phenomenon when western people misunderstood and incorrectly interpreted faiths from other culture. And plus, in fact, in Asia, there are plenty of democratic states such as South Korea, Indonesia and Thailand. Thus, quite apparently, it is utterly unfair for one to criticize Asian as NOT democratic.

From my point of view, every culture has its own charm, though the notion of “self-determination” is critical and not feasible, it conveys a sense of respect when viewing various civilized systems. And in our daily life, it would be a precious quality if one could comment a person based on her own behavior and personality instead of judging her by her nationality or race in advance, no matter the stereotypes are disguised in a good way (Asians are good at math) or bad way (Asians are bad at sports).

By Magnolia Yuan

Unveiling the ‘accountability’ of the Western Salvation

In terms of the contemporary acts in American intervention in liberating or saving Afghanistan females, the ethics of “War on Terrorism” and the “accountability” of saving them should be taken into account. One of the most important cultural icons during this procedure would be the burqa of Afghanistan women, which conveys significant cultural meanings and rhetoric. I argue that “the burqa” has been appropriated by the U.S. as a symbolic product of justifying its military intervention by constructing the Afghan women as slaves in need of “saving”. Show More

Taliban’s regaining of power recalls its power politics, as a military and political organization espousing Islamic fundamentalism and radical Islamism. Its interpretation of Islamism is constantly strict, carrying over into gender policy and, by extension, into the policy of the veil. Afghan women were not allowed to wear only the veil, but a “burqa” covering the entire body with only a small slit to see out. The oppressive aesthetic of the veil and burqa itself echoes the oppressive social atmosphere of totalitarian politics as imagined by the outside world (Bullock, 2010).

Whereas, the interrogations of wearing burqa are served for justifying the notion of Western salvation by symbolization. For instance, the rationale of “War on Terror” conducted by the American government is based on a notion of “the invasion of another country was not retaliatory, but justified and necessary”. In this public demand, Muslim women, oppressed by the Taliban government and required to wear the burqa, became the appropriate symbol. Burqa-clad women are often – even “disproportionately” – placed on the cover of news stories, in contrast to armed Al-Qaeda fighters. This narrative subtly glorified the US military invasion of Afghanistan as an advanced, liberal Western civilization “rescuing” Afghan women from the violence of the brutal Taliban government.

This crude treatment is highly effective in establishing a contrast between the “free” Western civilization with its choice of dress and the “oppressed” backward Islamic civilization of the East, producing a narrative akin to the “white man’s burden” with a colonialist narrative. Behind this symbolization, what is first concealed is the different cultural meanings of the veil and the burka in different social and cultural contexts. The veil was once seen as a symbol of autonomy in different countries: in Iran’s 1979 revolution, the veil was a symbol of women’s resistance to Western colonization; even after 9/11, the burqa was used to smuggle educational materials to underground schools, to hide cameras documenting Taliban atrocities, or to cover women’s escape from government persecution. It is indicative from these examples that the singular narrative of the veil in the US media and government – even the deliberate neglect of the positive aspects of the veil – implies an ideology of paternalistic leadership.

This comes to a discourse between cultural dimensions and conflict resolution, and the political dynamics within them. It is essential for conflict resolution approaches to consider the local cultural circumstances rather than unconsciously or intentionally presuppose the local people’s norms, leading to an unreasonable “accountability”.

Bibliography

Bullock, K. (2010). Rethinking Muslim women and the veil: Challenging historical & Modern Stereotypes . International Institute of Islamic Thought.

This is the picture of women in burqas with their children in Herat, Afghanistan, which is a common scenario in Afghan’s daily street life.

Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Women_in_burqa_with_their_children_in_Herat,_Afghanistan.jpg

By Maddie Squires

The entrenchment of photojournalism in Western media, especially in areas of conflict, has created a perpetual narrative in which people, mainly from the Global South, are in constant need of aid and intervention from the Global North, facilitating the idea of the white savior complex. In this Orientalist view of the situation, Eurocentric knowledge and ideas are forced upon the rest of the world in order to ‘save’ them from the situation they are in, whether that be conflict, poverty, disease, or something else. Show More

However, far from improving the lives in the communities, these images only remove the agency of the people in them and often centers the usually white journalist or volunteer in the photo as a ‘hero’. By not giving a voice to the people in the photos, colonial knowledge production and stereotypes are reproduced as the Global South continues to be portrayed as helpless, while the Global North feels a need to intervene and impart their ‘superior’ knowledge in order to facilitate a form of peace and stability that consistently does not address the root causes of conflict or the needs of the community. 

Reflecting on my own background, I can understand how this narrative is very entrenched in the West, and by taking this course I have come to understand that I have been complicit in some of the ideas perpetuated by photojournalism. In my school, there were some mission trips advertised to places in the Global South, accompanied by images of children from those areas, usually smiling with a white volunteer. At the time, I thought that this ‘volunteering’ was really helping those communities. However, now I understand the harmful consequences and impact of those images and trips for the local communities. Photojournalism can have a strong impact on people, but its impact is not seen in the communities the photos are taken in, but rather in galvanizing the idea of the white savior complex. 

Another issue raised by photojournalism is the idea of consent, or lack thereof, which only adds to the lack of agency of the subject(s). There is a circular dilemma, where if a community does not consent to having their photos taken, they will most likely not receive aid. However, if pictures are taken and distributed, the people in them just become faces for the Western media to put a storyline to, most times without humanizing their subjects or by promoting the good deeds of the white aid workers and volunteers, recycling the idea of white saviorism. This dilemma is unfair, as the photographers benefit, but the people in these communities are negatively impacted, either by not receiving aid or continuing to be perceived as in need of help/saving by the West. Therefore, while photojournalism claims to spread awareness and help for people in the Global South, by looking at the idea of photojournalism with a critical and post-colonial lens, it is a tool which simultaneously removes the agency of the subjects while propping up the white savior complex and superiority of Western aid/intervention practices which do not address the real issues and conflicts within the communities in the Global South. 

Image: Sharbat Gula became a symbol of Afghanistan to the West after her image was captured by Steve McCurry in 1984. However, at the time of the photo McCurry did not take her name or her story, and she was referred to as the ‘Afghan Girl’ until she was tracked down years later. 

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/pages/article/afghan-girl-home-afghanistan  

On Peace, Justice & Structural Violence

Over the past five years, I have attended almost two dozen protests of varying issues – from global inaction over climate change to the U.S. involvement in the war in Yemen. Each protest I participated in shared one common theme: they were all in opposition to systems of injustice that prevent one or more groups from experiencing peace. Show More

My conception of a system of justice is one conducive to equity for all and my definition of a peaceful environment is one in which there is no violence. I am not only referring to physical violence. Structural violence is a concept that is championed by IR critical theorists, particularly feminists, and it constitutes the violence faced by individuals when they lack the necessary resources and security to live a decent life (Nuruzzaman, 2006). Structural violence can come in the form of inadequate access to healthcare, nutrition, or a safe and clean environment. The existence of structural violence is premised on injustice. Therefore, an end to violence is distinctly predicated on an end to injustice. A state of peace is impossible without justice being implemented first.

An argument can be made that a state can be peaceful even with structural violence present. However, structural violence incites physical violence. For instance, it is well-known that violent crime disproportionately affects socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. Further, if you look at major events of intra-state conflict over the last half-century – the break-up of Yugoslavia, the genocide in Rwanda, and the high incidence of gang violence in Latin America – there are direct causal links to political and socioeconomic injustices. Whether morally right or wrong, the individuals who participate in these conflicts view themselves as liberating themselves and their people from injustice.

Additionally, attempts to bring attention to injustice are frequently ignored or violently shut down by those with the power to enact change. Last June, a protest I attended as a part of the Black Lives Matter movement ended when police teargassed peaceful protestors. No one was exhibiting uncivil behaviour, and yet they were attacked. This type of response only creates a positive feedback loop of injustice that grows progressively more violent, and highlights that the only way peace can be achieved is through structural change aimed at dismantling systems of injustice.

Reflecting on this topic is critical for personal growth, but in the case of injustice, inaction is equivalent to actively perpetuating inequalities. So, what can I do to further the pursuit of justice, and therefore work towards peace? I will conclude with a brief, non-exhaustive checklist to address this question:

• First, support politicians and policymakers who prioritise issues of justice at home rather than conflicts abroad (and actively oppose politicians who benefit from conflict and injustice).
• Second, participate in grassroots movements. Incremental change is key to bringing about justice. Each small win is a step in the right direction.
• Finally (and most crucially), never become complacent! As someone with enormous privilege, ignoring the harms faced by groups I am not a part of can be too easy, especially as I often benefit from those harms. The only way to aspire to justice is through collective effort and collective caring.

Nuruzzaman, Mohammed. 2006. “Paradigms in Conflict: The Contested claims of Human Security, Critical Theory and Feminism” Cooperation and Conflict 41 (3): 285-303

A photo I took of my friend Annie holding my sign at the DC Walk Out Against Gun Violence. Addressing injustices and demanding change from those who are supposed to represent us is key to fighting unjust policies and therefore promoting peace.

By Alexander Taylor 

To Whom Shall the UN be Accountable?

I believe that when it comes to government, national or international, accountability should be at the forefront of people’s thoughts. It is more important than ever that we hold the politicians, police, military, and organizations that we are supposed to put our trust in accountable if they commit crimes or actively work against the interest of the citizens they are supposed to represent. Unfortunately, this level of accountability is difficult to achieve, and this brings me to the dubious case of the United Nations (UN). Show More

The UN holds a unique position in the international community. As an international organization, it holds an unprecedented amount of influence over its current members. The UN’s record is contentious, with a widely varying degree of success within their missions, and this has caused a divide in opinions about the organization itself. This is exacerbated by the fact that in recent years the UN has been under increased scrutiny due to recorded incidents involving sexual and physical abuse being carried out against local populations by peacekeepers stationed in their area. This brings up a serious issue that many, including myself, hold with the UN, which is its accountability. The UN has tried to address these issues with new mandates and rules but, I believe their efforts have been in vain. Local and national courts are often not allowed to persecute or investigate personnel from the UN and when they can, lengthy UN protocol makes the trials unending and useless.

This begs the question of how an organization as large and influential as the UN can be held accountable? In my opinion there is one major action that could be taken to help, this being an impartial and independent court or committee created specifically for the monitoring and investigation of accusations made against UN personnel. However, for this court to be effective it would not only need to be independent and made up of non-UN personnel but would also need to be inclusive of the Global South. Almost all current peacekeeping missions are active in the Global South and the UN has long been criticized for its bias towards Global North nations. As an organization that has often catered to those nations, we have seen that it does not always represent or have the best intentions for the Global South and as such any court or committee would need to incorporate these peoples, as these are the nations where crimes are taking place at the hands of the UN. Without this incorporation of residents, their voices may never be heard, and justice may never be achieved for the victims of the UN’s crimes.

I believe that only this independent committee or court made up of impartial experts as well as local experts and citizens from the populations that have suffered abuse from the UN would be able to properly investigate and convict personnel who up until now have rarely received the proper punishment for their crimes. If the UN is to retain its legitimacy, then it must be more willing to be held accountable for its actions.

Indian peacekeepers patrol the Congo; Available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Les_Soldats_de_la_Paix_du_bataillon_indien_lors_d%27une_patrouille_de_domination_de_terrain_%C3%A0_travers_la_for%C3%AAt_de_Pitakongo_(15143910694).jpg   

The Role of Academia and Education in Conflict

Some traditional scholars in the discipline of International Relations condemn critical perspectives and theories for being just that, critical. Stating that they merely criticize others’ work, propose no ideas of their own, and no practical solutions. I would have to strongly disagree with this argument. Show More

Critical, feminist, and decolonial theorists point out the important fact that many different voices (namely women and scholars of the global south) are almost completely ignored in Western academia. This directly translates into the problem of these perspectives being ignored in policymaking, and peacekeeping, when oftentimes these are the groups most vulnerable to the effects of violence and conflict.

What traditional theorists often forget is that including different perspectives and paying close attention to the language used in framing issues and conflict is an idea, and a solution in itself. Conflict is perpetuated and even further ignited when people’s diverse perspectives (based on culture, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, race, age, language, religion, or otherwise) are overlooked, individuals and their emotions are discounted as irrelevant to state relations, and action is taken anyway with brazen disregard for the consequences.

Conflicts are inflamed when people do not feel as if they are being heard. Therefore, by criticizing the Western, male-dominated norms in traditional International Relations theory, and in the discipline as a whole, critical, feminist and decolonial theorists propose what I believe could be a long-lasting solution to every conflict: people in power actually listening to and truly trying to understand the perspectives of those involved, and the context of the conflict, then resolve it at its roots.

This perpetuation of only acknowledging the more privileged, powerful voices over all others in higher level academia works its way down to norms perpetuated in school curriculums throughout the global north. By not including diverse perspectives in education (including books or other media created by women, people of colour, and people from countries outside the global north), it allows damaging stereotypes to be taught to the next generation of children. It means that the people who are stereotyped do not have the chance to express their own identities. For example, ‘white saviours’ will continue to believe Africans need ‘saving’ as long as they only see the stereotype portrayed by Western media which paints Africans as poor and vulnerable, therefore stealing Africans’ individual voices and wiping out their rich cultural perspectives and innovative ideas.

In addition to children in schools being taught dangerous stereotypes, they are also not taught how to think critically for themselves to be able to question these ingrained norms, beliefs, and their own privilege and place in the world. They are instead taught, through consistent standardized assessment, to passively memorize the information fed to them. For this reason, I believe the critical thinking brought to the table in higher level academia by critical, decolonial, and feminist scholars is very important, and must work its way down to education in schools if we are to tackle injustice, unequal power dynamics, and structural violence, and truly create peace throughout the world.

This is a picture of my desk in St Andrews during exam time. I am extremely grateful for my own education, which has truly taught me to think critically about my privilege, place in the world, and role in perpetuating conflict (whether it be within my own family and friendships, or in larger structures and society).

By Aiden Hawker

The intuitive, almost instinctive answer is that refugee camps secure the peace of the refugees within them. I argue however, that refugee camps, particularly those in the case of the European migration crisis, serve a different peace – the peace of those outside who feel threatened by the perceived refugee ‘other’. Show More

Whilst attractive, the notion that refugee camps serve refugees fails to account for the other parties involved in their provision and management – indeed usually the more powerful parties. Their motives, albeit less immediately obvious, do not necessarily serve the interests of the refugees but often contradictory ones.

The deceased Moria camp on the island of Lesbos in Greece is a useful example to consider how refugee camps can function in the interests of those beyond their boundaries. Viewed superficially, the Moria camp acted to protect refugees, providing them somewhere to be temporarily housed free from the violence which they fled. However, when the camp is considered from the approach of the Greek government and the European Union it takes on a very different character. From their perspective, the camp forms an important part of the strategy to exclude these refugees from the European mainland where they are frequently depicted (e.g., through media) and as such commonly understood as a threatening ‘other’. In other words, they (the refugees) are viewed as dangerous to the ‘peace’ in western societies. Refugee camps such as Moria are thus not only vehicles for peace for refugees but also an imagined ‘peace’ in western societies.

However, the unequal power dynamics at play mean that decisions pertaining to these camps come almost exclusively from the camp administrators and can result in a situation whereby the need for peace outside the camp reduces to little or nothing the peace that refugees inside possess. For instance, the slow processing of asylum seekers from Moria to the mainland resulted in the camp functioning as a bottleneck, with the number of individuals at its peak registering 20,000 when the camp was designed for just 3,000 (Guardian, 2020). This in turn resulted in conditions described as “living hell” (Ibid) and eventually to the camp reportedly being burnt down in protest (BBC Newsnight, 2020). In this way, the prioritising of the security and ‘peace’ of those outside the camp ended up eliminating the security and very real peace required by refugees in the camp.

We must therefore reflect on why we instinctively believe refugee camps to serve refugee interests rather than our own. Here, embracing my own positionality offers at least a preliminary thought. Perhaps in believing that refugee camps are organised for refugees as opposed to our own interests, we, in positions of privilege, unintentionally distance ourselves from our compliance and involvement in the denial of refugee’s security in camps. Embracing such responsibility, is an important, albeit challenging step, as we, in our privileged lives have a far greater influence over discourse informing camp administrators and governments than we might initially imagine. Furthermore, camp administrators should better listen, support, and engage in dialogue with refugees so that camps can better reflect their needs rather than our own. 

Photo Credit: BBC, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-54082201 

By Octavia Chappell

Navigating the Terminology of Victimhood

The term victim exists currently in a state of tension. While there is a shift taking place in the Global North to resist the term victim in favour of survivor when discussing those who have experienced suffering and trauma in the same region, the discourse of research, humanitarianism and justice mechanisms towards the Global South has largely experienced no such resistance. Instead, I notice that many from the Global North exhibit a fascination with victimhood in the Global South that often reinforces narrow constructions of what victims look and act like. As Krystalli observes when conducting research in Colombia, not only did everybody want to ‘talk to a victim’, but these victims were assumed to ‘have a postal code (rural), a skin tone (dark) and a gender (female)’ (Krystalli 2021, 127-131). How many times have each of us in the UK seen a charity advert or stories in the news about ‘victims’ of atrocities in which images of women of colour and children are centralised but their voices erased? The imperialist enthrallment with victimhood in the Global South has not only normalised such constructions but has replaced the voices of survivors with a sombre soundtrack or celebrity voiceover. Therefore, it’s no surprise that the structural language and terminology of victimhood reflects a white saviour rhetoric that often takes little consideration of the needs and wants of those in the Global South.

What appears to exist then is a paradox of accessibility and visibility. On the one hand, people must identify as victims in order to access resources and legal justice mechanisms, but by doing so, the structures tied to such mechanisms strip victims of their agency. Victims are left with all the risks and potential exploitation from increased visibility but are treated as invisible and voiceless by those who have the power to implement justice or distribute resources due to structures that overwhelmingly serve the interests of the Global North. For example, the confusing complexity of international justice proceedings and poor communication and accessibility of the ICJ is actively disempowering Rohingya survivors. The court’s refusal to move proceedings closer to survivors and their disregard of victims’ interests ‘as articulated by the victims themselves’ highlights how tokenistic these efforts are to include survivors in justice processes (Raj Singh 2020). Overall, I think that in order for real accountability and justice to be achieved, it’s essential that the longstanding imperialist structures that have associated the language of victimhood with gendered and racialized assumptions of the Global South are challenged. I believe that paying greater attention to terminology demonstrates the complexity of victimhood and the need for structural change in order to meaningfully empower survivors.

Krystalli, Roxani. 2021. ‘Narrating Victimhood: Dilemmas and in(Dignities)’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 23(1): 125-146.

Raj Singh, Shannon. 2020. ‘ Rohingya Symposium: Justice Out of Reach – The Need to Better Connect Accountability Proceedings to Atrocity Survivors. ’ OpinioJuris, 28 August, 2020.

A Google Image search result for the term ‘victim’ highlights the tension between using and rejecting the language of victimhood, and its anonymising powers. (Screenshot from February 2021)

By Raja Albers

The construction of difference and the ‘West’ as superior through poverty porn

That is poverty porn, the exploitation of privilege to tell a story of poverty, helplessness and suffering on the Global South through imagery that lacks consent, agency, and dignity of the portrayed person. Despite disregarding the human dignity of the subject, poverty porn tells a single story of the Global South and constructs a homogenous group of ‘victims’ on one side and ‘saviours’ on the other. It, thus, reinforces the construct of the ‘white saviour’. I believe this is problematic in multiple aspects relating to efforts of justice and peace.

It emphasises the notion of ‘help’ and ignores the root sources of poverty. Despite the fact that ceasefires and ‘help’ have been centred in traditional approaches to justice and peace, the discussions from the tutorial revealed to me, again, that responsibility and accountability on the side of the ‘West’ are needed. This, also, allows us to question the good intention behind humanitarian work as it may well serve as a veil to cover the need for real justice, meaning the ‘West’ taking responsibility for the consequences of imperialism, colonialism, and its interference in the matters of states in the Global South down to the present day. Thus, I believe that through poverty porn, prospects to achieve long-term social change (in terms of justice and peace) are undermined.

Moreover, what strikes me is the unscrupulousness with which pictures of human suffering and vulnerability are taken and displayed when it comes to the Global South unlike what we consider as ethical photography in portrayals of white Western subjects. To me, this difference shows the perception of Western superiority by differently applying ethical standards to people from the Global North and the Global South. The portrayal of a person (or whole hemisphere) as desperately in need of rescue also takes away agency from people in the Global South to shape their future and hence reinforces existing hierarchies. This is well illustrated by a unicef campaign from 2011 showing a child looking up to the photographer in tears, the slogan reading “He’s starving, We’re not”. (To avoid reproducing problematic imagery I have decided not to include the specified campaign picture in this contribution.) It shook me looking at the picture and thinking about something I’ve talked about in the last semester. These few words say so much about the problem of acknowledging interconnectedness and responsibility. The construction of the ‘starving’ Global South allows the ‘West’ to construct itself as a superior “we” that can give to the former, which is reinforced as ‘the Other’. This construction of difference also denies existing poverty and health issues in the Global North that show that structural inequality is not a problem of the Global South (only). In light of what is actually needed – honest conversations and a will to listen and understand on the side of the dominant group – I strongly believe that existing hierarchies need to be overcome.

Edward Said’s analysis of the construction of difference through stereotypes by ‘the West’ demonstrates how a single narrative is created and serves to preserve existing hierarchies.  Media Theorised (2019) Edward Said: The politics of stereotypes in news [online video]. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/program/media-theorised/2019/10/31/edward-said-the-politics-of-stereotypes-in-news/ . [Accessed 16 February 2021]

By Rhea Soni

As a 9th grader in high school, I went on a volunteer trip to Cuzco, Peru, in the hopes of gaining a more holistic understanding of Peruvian culture by participating in Spanish classes and teaching English at a local orphanage. I signed onto the trip under the impression that I would be “helping” the local orphans learn English and better my Spanish—a justifiable cultural trade (in my 13-year-old opinion). However, reflecting on the trip made me realize that I was contributing to the neo-colonialist power structures that separated me from “them”, and made me believe that as a 13-year-old, I was more equipped to teach English than a local teacher. Show More

Volunteer Tourism, the form of humanitarianism in which travellers, primarily from the Global North, participate in voluntary work to initiate cross-cultural awareness and international understanding, has peaked in popularity in the past decade. This form of humanitarianism is based on a simple ideology: “the Global South is inevitably better off with ongoing interventions (in the name of development) than it would be without them” (Manzo 2008). Many organizations have exploited the human altruistic tendency, turning it into a business opportunity that proves to be detrimental for the nation receiving these volunteers. While these organizations base trips on the notion of fostering cross-cultural discourse and understanding, these short trips simply cannot allow for a reflective and informed notion of the community being “helped”. While partakers have good intentions about benefiting the destination community, they are unknowingly buying into and confirming their predisposed opinions of “us” and “them”, worsening the divide between the Global North and South and reinforcing the existing neo-colonialist power structures.

These power dynamics are shown through the interaction between these well-meaning individuals and local communities. The volunteers are usually tasked with painting a school, teaching English, and other menial labour-intensive tasks. As a university student, I’m not qualified for these tasks, yet I was made to believe that I was at age 13. While volunteers essentially do this work for free, a trained local construction worker or teacher could do the same, if not better. The incoming volunteer workforce adds competition to the labour market, making it more difficult for the locals to earn fair wages. This perpetuation of inequality allows for the individuals to believe that they are better than the local population and in some cases, allow these volunteers to maintain the dynamic of supremacy, proving that their help is required and appreciated (Project Volunteer Nepal, n.d.). They look for validation in being seen as a hero in a way that they are not at home. Without an equal relationship between the two groups of individuals, there can be no cross-cultural exchange or dialogue.

In order to truly foster empathy and understanding, volunteer tourism needs to move towards Indigenous and community-led tourism approaches through facilitating interactions with local communities and allowing space for the volunteers to reflect, rather than letting them reinforce the pre-existing stereotypes they have. Only then can the power structures be changed.

Butcher, Joel. Photograph of Volunteer Trip to Zimbabwe . 2015. Author’s personal collection. 

Manzo, Kate. “ Imaging Humanitarianism: NGO Identity and the Iconography of Childhood. ” Antipode 40, no. 4 (2008): 632–657. 

Project Volunteer Nepal. “ Unequal Power Relations. ” Accessed February 8, 2021. 

This photo, taken of a University of St Andrews Student, on a volunteer trip to Zimbabwe, shows an instance of an interaction between a “well-meaning” volunteer and local children.

How hidden meanings in the words we use as students, academics and peacemakers can affect chances for peace

The words we use, much like the people or actions they are attached to, are not passive in our study of peace and conflict. Show More

Beginning this module, I was well equipped to critique highly motivated representations of certain demographics in academia, the media, and my own subconscious (as a privileged, white, Western woman).  While these harmful frameworks do exist, I did not expect to discover that language is used by each of us – from practitioners to peacekeepers – to categorise people, and that signifiers in language can be both highly motivated, or accidental.  Thus, we must endeavour to be critical of the words we choose, and conscious of how they inform.

Issues of peace and conflict are striking, and often (although not always) hard to ignore. Violence brings nations and its peoples to the attention of the world, and the world responds by categorising these people, making them into caricatures.  I can understand why.  Navigating the unknown often requires us to condense complex situations into simpler, bitesize chunks.  This can serve as a tool for relating and comparing experiences, which I have definitely done, especially as a child watching other children in the BBC’s Comic Relief broadcasts.

But I have also seen that it can be deeply problematic. This category of ‘people’, I think, does not exist; much less the category of ‘women’, repeatedly cited in Western feminism as a way to relate experiences across the world, with no respect for silent struggles. For example, Muslim women are ‘saved’ from their wider culture and religion because the feminist scholars we read often relate to the struggle against the patriarchy, rather than understand the contexts in which these women live their lives.

These generalisations apply to the West, too.  For example, I think the crucial argument we discussed about ‘white saviours’ would benefit from a far less exaggerated example than the young, white, American woman who obsessively uses slang. This version is not always accurate – the ‘white saviour’ is multi-faced, of any gender. It could look like and sound me, which I cannot ignore. 

Taking this idea further, I have realised the unintentional impact of word choice. Signing ‘Comprehensive Peace Agreements’ alone never leads to an immediate post-conflict environment, just as discussions (across all levels, including community) about ‘ending violence outright’ will not, in themselves, realise a positive peace.  But these moments in history are praised in academia, and in our seminars.  Whereas before I would have been reassured, even impressed by such actions, I have come to realise that these words are often signifiers for empty successes, especially in intractable conflict zones where small victories are capitalised upon by mediators. This exaggerated word choice can lead to external peacekeepers idling away any real momentum towards peace efforts.

Peace studies is a growing field, and I believe there is room within it to examine the complexities of word choice and representation. Going forward in my studies, I will remain mindful of the words I use, and critical of the discourse employed by scholars and stakeholders alike, especially in peacekeeping missions.

A photo I took at the end of my 12 months teaching English in Unawatuna, Sri Lanka. This module has prompted uncomfortable but vital reflection not just on my experience there (as I feel we were truly wanted), but on the language used when fundraising. Expressing a need for white English speakers adds to the very real ‘white saviour’ problem.

On White Saviorism

Having grown up in Africa as the daughter of two white, American parents who work in public health and development, I have a fairly intimate understanding of white saviorism. Show More

Beyond witnessing white saviors and white savior schemes in action, I grew up hearing the kind of work my parents do labeled as such and, upon reflection, have realized that I myself have acted as a white savior. When I lived in Kenya, for example, I went on a class trip where we spent a day helping a local school repaint classrooms and build new desks (pictured here). While the intentions behind this trip were more so about having us engage with our local community than “saving” the school, I came out of this experience feeling that rather than aiding the school in any meaningful way, we had used the work as a way to make us feel better about ourselves as foreigners living in a developing country.

White saviorism is the idea that privileged Western states, organizations, and peoples have an obligation to “save” less fortunate countries and peoples in the “third world” (Lammy 2019). White saviors decide not only that the developing world needs their help, but also that they are the only ones who can help them because they are the only ones who know what they need help with. Thus white saviorism victimizes third world countries and peoples, robs them of their agency and privacy, and keeps them poor and powerless. As westerners flock to countries like Kenya to help those who supposedly cannot help themselves, they perpetuate a cycle in which developing nations, communities, and peoples depend on these “saviors” because, rather than being given the means or empowerment to provide these services for themselves, “the white man” simply does it for them.

This is not to say that those who act as white saviors are inherently bad but rather that their actions, no matter how well intentioned, keep developing countries dependent on “the white man” and thus reproduce and perpetuate colonial racial and power hierarchies. Organizations like the Uganda-based No White Saviors combat this idea that local populations in “third world” countries cannot be the heroes of their own stories. This is not to say that white people have no role to play in the developing world but simply that they should no longer position themselves as its saviors. In a first step towards breaking down the colonial power structures that white saviorism perpetuates, Western countries, organizations, and peoples looking to help those in the developing world need to understand that those people not only have a right to decide whether they want to be helped but also what form that help takes. Rather than painting a classroom and repairing desks that will have to be repainted and repaired in two years, why not ask the school what they need most and then aid and empower them to be able to meet that need on their own, consistently and independently?

Lammy, David. “Stacey Dooley ‘white saviour’ row interview with David Lammy who objects.” By Victoria Derbyshire. BBC News, February 28, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ej1XRtYUfTM

No White Saviors. “We Never Said ‘No White People’: We just know you shouldn’t be the hero of the story.” Accessed on October 20, 2020. https://nowhitesaviors.org/

By Surina Martin 

It’s been seven months since COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic, and it’s hard to remember what life was like before it all. I almost forgot that Brexit was still a thing as the headlines were dominated by coronavirus. Yet for many areas affected by fragility, conflict and violence (FCV), already existing tensions did not take a peripheral position but were rather exacerbated by the outbreak of the virus, which necessitated effective communication between governments, health services and the public. One such affected area is the Gaza strip, which continues to be a major site of conflict between Israel and Palestine. Show More

A common attitude towards COVID-19 is to believe it does not discriminate; it has the potential to infect anybody and thus everybody should take the same precautions. This outlook, however, fails to consider the situational factors that compound the virus’ threat. The lack of nuance in coronavirus guidelines speaks to our own tendency to view medical knowledge as absolute rather than intersubjective. Many of the guidelines from the WHO, imported into countries across the globe with little regard to the context on the ground, become unfeasible when you consider access to clean water or extreme population density, for example. These are just two problems Gaza faces in their management of COVID-19, accentuated by continued disputes between the governments of Palestine and Israel.

Previous events of the long-standing conflict in the region have established significant threats to the containment of the virus. The Gaza Strip, already effectively in a lockdown due to the 13-year Israeli blockade of the region which limits the movement of people and supplies into the area, has faced heightened strains on its already precarious infrastructure in the face of COVID-19. Whilst our classes here are delivered over Teams, students’ remote learning in Gaza is hindered by frequent power outages. Refugee camps, such as the Jabalia Camp which homes over 100,000 people within 1.4 square kilometres, provide the perfect breeding ground for a respiratory virus. Yet despite the seemingly bleak situation on the ground, I would be hesitant to label the people of Gaza as simply victims of the crisis, and even less so in need of the ‘West’ to save them.

Whilst the UNRWA has undoubtedly helped in providing vital medical supplies and funding, it is grassroots organisations such as Stop The Wall who ensure these resources reach those who need it most, and local artists who raise awareness about the virus. International aid is problematic in its inherent power dynamics, positioning aid receivers as dependent on aid givers, and so the most effective and just way to truly empower is not to swoop in and ‘save’ the Gazan population (and one has to ask what it is you are saving them from), but rather recognise their agency and provide the means to allow them to help themselves. Taking the local response into account, it seems that the COVID-19 emergency has actually rekindled a sense of community amongst Gazans. It is a renewed sense of sumud —an ideology of perseverance in the face of hardship—which locals have employed to handle the effects of the pandemic and take ownership of their lives, where the international community has failed.

UNRWA, Jabalia Camp. https://www.unrwa.org/where-we-work/gaza-strip/jabalia-camp

By Delaney Flanigan

A critical view of the relationship between knowledge and power asserts that there is never a single understanding of an issue or topic, instead there are hundreds of understandings, yet very few are endorsed and accepted (for more information on this see the work of Walter Mignolo and Michel Foucault). Show More

Importantly, this process of popularizing knowledge is an act of power: the experience endorsed by those with the most agency is often the understanding which becomes accepted. This view of knowledge production is crucial not only within international relations broadly but within peace and conflict studies. Using the work of Rafeef Ziadah, a spoken word poet and activist, I will examine how the existing structures of knowledge production impact oppressed communities. 

As a white American woman, I firmly belong within multiple groups whose experience is centered in mainstream knowledge, so I will be unpacking this topic through two poems by Rafeef Ziadah which describe her experience as a Palestinian woman. I think poetry is a very important medium to be using, as it is largely free of taboos around content or emotionality and is a powerful and accessible way to share one’s experience. 

Looking first at “We Teach Life”, Ziadah looks at how Palestine is portrayed by outside media, specifically around the common themes of violence. Using the powerful phrase “Today my body was a TV’d massacre”, Ziadah speaks to this connection between knowledge and power, as her lack of agency means that her experience is manipulated to fit the predetermined perceptions and beliefs of those in power. Instead of listening to and engaging with the stories of those on the ground, these external groups exclude or rewrite these experiences into a story which reinforces their own narratives. I think this poem speaks beautifully to the danger of this behavior, as it creates a cycle in which the experiences of the oppressed are not only ignored but eventually these alternative narratives become so strong that the stories of the oppressed cannot be told, as they go so deeply against what has been accepted that they are no longer believed or valued.

“Hadeel” speaks about the death of a young girl and how her life was rewritten into a political narrative by both external groups and by Palestinians. As a result of her tragic death, Hadeel became a martyr, reframing her life within the much larger historical narrative of violence in Palestinian. From here, Ziadah looks at resilience, expressing that because of this transformation, there is no longer space to mourn Hadeel – instead the tragedy is used as a way to inspire Palestinians to carry on the fight. Not only does Hadeel lose control over how her experience is used, but Ziadah’s is also rewritten into this larger political discourse taking away her ability to stop and be sad about this event; instead she is pushed to turn her emotions into activism and passion for the larger cause. 

Overall, Ziadah’s experience, seen through these two poems, speaks to the importance of employing a critical understanding of knowledge production not just within the field of international relations, but within our everyday lives.  

Image courtesy of Rafeef Ziadah, accessed November 25, 2020 at http://www.rafeefziadah.net/js_photo_albums/teach-life-australia-2016/

Ziadah, Rafeef. (2009). “Hadeel”. Track #6 on Hadeel. Accessed online on November 25, 2020 at: http://www.rafeefziadah.net/js_albums/hadeel/ . 

Ziadah, Rafeef. (2015). “We Teach Life”. Track #4 on We Teach Life. Accessed online on November 25, 2020 at: http://www.rafeefziadah.net/js_albums/we-teach-life/ . 

By Laoise Rogers

‘Resilience’: a word that, for me, would have previously evoked solely positive images of strength and the ability to overcome adversity. However, our tutorials this semester have encouraged me to analyse the language of peace and conflict studies more critically. I decided to further delve into ‘resilience’ in relation to the threat of climate change to humans. Climate change is a threat multiplier and significantly exacerbates many peace and conflict issues, so it is important to reflect on the effects of popular discourse. Show More  

Climate change adaptation discourse has been recently characterised by the same fixation with ‘resilience’ as many other fields. Climate resilience does not have a universal definition, but generally refers to the ability of socio-ecological systems to prepare for, recover from, and adapt to the impacts of climate change (C2ES, 2019, p.1). It is used by many, such as NGOs, with good intentions and unfortunately, there is no denying that communities around the world do need to prepare for and adapt to the impacts of climate change. However, it is important to interrogate its relation to power structures.

A climate justice lens highlights the highly unequal impact of climate change on developing countries (Puaschunder, 2020, p.6). At the crux of climate justice concerns is that those who have contributed least to climate change are most affected. Furthermore, existing socio-economic inequality is exacerbated within developing countries, roots of which can often be traced back to the devastating historical roles of external powers. It is communities in developing countries to whom resilience is often promoted, evoking a significant, uncomfortable sense of hypocrisy, in my view. The concept of resilience places strong emphasis on agency, which is imperative, but it is crucial to interrogate what other interests are served. In this case there is a risk that resilience discourse aids Western-controlled institutions in their inaction on climate change and maintains the status quo. I think this is because resilience, which in its early conception was applied to physical science and ecology, effectively naturalises the anthropogenic causes of climate change and depoliticise the climate crisis by insinuating it is an inevitable, external threat (Davoudi et al, 2012, p.300). This depoliticisation inhibits radical change and accountability.

Furthermore, some warn that climate resilience discourse can romanticise the role of Indigenous peoples as being exemplary in their resilience due to their perceived proximity to nature (Reid, 2019). This grants them only selective agency, as the structurally violent contexts in which they exist are often ignored. Due to the popular association of resilience with strength, I think there is also a significant risk that in some contexts it could delegitimise people’s struggles to cope with climate change impacts.

Communities should prepare themselves for the future and be supported in doing so, but such efforts should be contextualised and the climate crisis’ political nature recognised. At the same time as placing emphasis on agency, more tangible change must be enacted by those whose moral responsibility it is. Resilience should ideally be defined on communities’ own terms, whether in relation to climate change or other conflicts. However, at the very least, when promoted externally I think it should be used with caution. 

Image courtesy of Visible Hand ©2009, some rights reserved. 

https://www.flickr.com/photos/itzafineday/4128944746

C2ES (Center for Climate and Energy Solutions). (2019). “What is Climate Resilience and Why Does it Matter?” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. https://www.c2es.org/site/assets/uploads/2019/04/what-is-climate-resilience.pdf . 

Davoudi, Simin., Keith Shaw, L. Jamila Haider, Allyson E. Quinlan, Garry D. Peterson, Cathy Wilkinson, Hartmut Fünfgeld, Darryn McEvoy, Libby Porter & Simin Davoudi (2012). “Resilience: A Bridging Concept or a Dead End? “Reframing” Resilience: Challenges for Planning Theory and Practice Interacting Traps: Resilience Assessment of a Pasture Management System in Northern Afghanistan Urban Resilience: What Does it Mean in Planning Practice? Resilience as a Useful Concept for Climate Change Adaptation? The Politics of Resilience for Planning: A Cautionary Note. Planning Theory & Practice, 13(2): 299-333. DOI: 10.1080/14649357.2012.677124

Puaschunder, Julia. (2020). “ Governance and climate justice: Global South and Developing Nations .” Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

Reid, Julian. (2019). “The Cliché of Resilience: Governing indigeneity in the Arctic.” Arena Journal 51/52: 10-17. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330337881_The_Cliche_of_Resilience_Governing_Indigeneity_in_the_Arctic

By Hannah Suiter

When conceptualizing contemporary peace efforts, I am instructed by an old saying.  It posits the idea that when faced with a problem, our first thoughts are primarily a reflection of our environment, and the context in which we live.  What we think next, which can either agree with or refute our first thought, is who we really are.  Too often when we speak of conflict, our ‘reasoned minds’ choose to cling to our first thoughts.  These can be used to justify strategies, such as military intervention, or even an Orientalist feeling that the people of a nation are ‘used to’ a conflict, or are naturally violent.  We are guilty of being satisfied within the comfort of our own preconceptions, and the powerful amongst us are trusted to act upon them. Show More  

Yet, naturally, our ‘first thoughts’ stem from the thoughts of others. The real-time impact of peacekeeping operations will always be out-with the public domain.  For fellow university students,and myself, who are at present unqualified for work in the field, it is impossible to be embedded in the Congo, Sudan, or Mali, for example.  Therefore, we often rely on regional accounts of peace operations to be fed to us by trained NGO spokespeople or state media; but this can be a careful, and often tactical process.  Of course, these are not the only sources available to us, but they are recommended by our institutions.

Intersectional feminist approaches to peace and conflict studies, to me, are about looking twice at this.  To have any chance at a positive peace, which must always be the aim of conflict resolution, we must clearly see the specific changes required to enable it.  None of us are simply one ‘thing’ – we can be young, old, unemployed, displaced, disabled, black, female.  Depending on this combination, we may require a different kind of help, if any.  As such, it is impossible to gauge a true representation of a conflict zone – and all its inner complexities – if we subscribe only to the version of the story which we are used to being sold to us, or the version which exists within us subconsciously.

Unlike our subconscious often is, war-torn communities are not stagnant or fixed.  Changes in societal makeup or demographics may mean that using the tools for peace historic to the region are no longer appropriate.  Therefore, it is essential that we repeatedly ask, who is actively being dominated? And what is stopping people from being afforded the dignity they deserve?  These are questions which have answers, and they do not lie in political histories, nor trends.  They come from the people.

Back to this saying.  When a new conflict begins, or an old one resurfaces, we must avoid succumbing to our ‘first thoughts’.  Instead, let us challenge our informers, and go beyond our instincts.  Only then can peacekeeping missions, if they are necessary at all, be redesigned as a tool for a positive, inclusive peace.  We must ensure that who were ‘really are’, are people who amplify stifled voices, and act with compassion, empathy, and respect.

Dar al Naim’s : ‘She, Empath’. Artist description: “The term empath comes from empathy…the ability to understand the experiences and feelings of others outside your own perspective.”

@daralnaimart. (Aug 27, 2020). She, Empath. A4 mixed-media on watercolour paper. 

By Ella Handy

Language has always been utilised by Western interventionists in conflict zones to construct and preserve (neo)colonial power dynamics. Poststructural scholars believe that those in power create knowledge, and this knowledge in turn creates further power, in a cyclical relationship. This theory can be very much applied to definitions of peace. Show More

Being lucky enough to grow up in the Lake District (see photo), I came to understand peace in terms of moments of calm, and the absence of chaos. However, during my time studying Peace and Conflict Studies, I’ve learned that defining peace is much more complex.

I’m incredibly thankful that my education has encouraged me to question the power dynamics behind cultural and political paradigms. I hope to pursue a career in conflict resolution in the future, and therefore I’m determined to make the most of these critical skills, in order to help avert the repetition of mistakes previously made in the field.

One mistake often made, is the imposition of external (particularly Western) ideas on the ground, disregarding those of the local population. Consequentially, external intervention has come to be viewed by many postcolonialists as a neocolonial exercise, intended to impose Western values on others (often via military means). 

Perhaps the most important thing that I have learnt in my time studying peace and conflict studies, is that it is absolutely vital that local voices are centralised to decolonialise peace processes, and that locally developed ideas must be put into practice on the ground. A key component of this, is that external actors must, consequentially, understand how the local population defines peace, instead of focusing upon their own definitions.

Whilst the Western concept of ‘liberal peace’ appears to benefit local populations at first glance, (prioritising democracy, human rights, the rule of law and economic development (Richmond 2006)), it is often fundamentally unhelpful, as it is not nuanced enough, and marginalises indigenous voices and ideas, which are absolutely critical in the establishment of lasting peace. Furthermore, the structure of a peace processes is a direct reflection of its outcome. If structural violence is taking place within political negotiations, in terms of the indigenous population being ignored, this often leads to an increase in tension, resentment and physical violence between the local population and external actors, such as was seen in Iraq from 2003 onwards.

Scholars such as Galtung (2011)emphasise the importance of focusing on ‘positive peace’ (the absence of structural violence and the improvement of “relations between genders, races, classes, and families”) in addition to paying attention to ‘negative peace’ (the absence of physical violence). However ‘positive peace’ can only be achieved if it is understood what such a definition means from the perspective of the local population. Hence, it is their definition of peace, which must shape peace processes, leading to increased agency and the decolonialisation of power dynamics.

In conclusion, I believe that in order for morality and humanity to prevail, it is of extreme importance that decolonial practices are put into place, with the centralisation of local voices in peace processes. Consequentially, local definitions of peace are key and must be acted upon, to restructure power dynamics, and rebuild society.

Photo Reference: “Lake Buttermere” – Source: Shutterstock. Wanderlust. 2020. 15 things you must do in the Lake District. September 20. Accessed November 26 2020. https://www.wanderlust.co.uk/content/5-things-you-must-do-in-the-lake-district/

Galtung, Johan. 2011. “Peace, Positive and Negative.” In The Encyclopedia of Peace Psychology , by D. J. Christie. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Richmond, Oliver. 2006. “The problem of peace: understanding the ‘liberal peace’.” Conflict. Security & Development 291-314.

By Natalie Wong

Why is liberal peace problematic?

Embedded in institutions and enshrined in constitutions, these liberal democratic ideals seep into the daily lives of the polity, rather than ringfenced in exclusive elite circles. Instead of attempting to understand the local historicity and complex heterogenous cultural context, the proponents of liberal peace sought to impose liberal values which broadly include individualism, law, freedoms, democracy and the market economy. The fundamental and extensive shift in the style of governmentality, based on a different set of understandings and values, results in changes in the conduct of citizens at best, and at worse, erasure of ways of thinking and livelihoods.

Liberal peace has roots in the Democratic Peace Theory, which argues that liberal democratic states are less likely to go to war with each other. Furthermore, with the end of the Cold War, the liberal democratic West gained political and ideological hegemony. In an attempt to prevent further conflict, the Western liberal democratic states and international institutions became preoccupied with making the ‘Other’ less foreign, under the guise of altruistic motivations of civilising missions and to build peace. The inflated sense of moral superiority, which had traces of imperialist attitudes of the ‘White Man’s burden’, led to the dominant form of liberal peacebuilding in post-conflict countries of the global South. These countries were seen as ‘backward’ and incapable of independent nation-building. Local understandings of exchange, economics, identity, law, political and social organisation were either overlooked or dismissed as primitive or unsophisticated. Rather than engaging in a sincere collaboration with locals, the imposition of the liberal peace through United Nations, World Bank and other international institutions, more often than not cast aside and erased local practices and values in an attempt to ‘save’ the locals from their own ‘unevolved’ ways. While this may seem to oversimplify the negatives of liberal peace, we cannot ignore the possibility that if local agency was acknowledged and supported, perhaps a more equitable, relevant and sustainable peace could be implemented.

While liberal peace may, in theory, have positive intentions, it is crucial to understand its potential pitfalls. Assuming that liberal peace is morally righteous and therefore a universal good, dismisses the heterogeneity of world views, values and understandings. This is especially problematic and dangerous when applied to post-conflict countries in a fragile liminal state. Hence, Western liberal peacebuilders should focus on how best to support local agency, rather than racing to secure their own political and economic interests by creating an illusory peace through the imposition of liberal democratic institutions and infrastructures.

Picture: film photograph, Singapore, 2020 (author’s photograph)

By Ailsa Martin

The ability to bounce back from adversity, to meet challenges with positivity, to remain strong when others would crumble. An attribute many employers value, resilience has become quite a buzzword in society. Resilience is a label given to individuals, communities, and states that have been subjected to challenges many others have never experienced. Fragility, fear, and inequalities are masked behind acts of strength idolised by those on the outside. In international relations, humanitarian crises are often met with narratives of resilience – communities coming together to support one another in times of crisis. But why should this be necessary? Show More  

Michael Traynor, writing on resilience in nursing, has not read a paper where “resilience is the basis for activism and change” and believes instead that the concept only “supports the status quo” (2018, 5-6). Powering through hard times often means that ‘resilient’ communities will do what they can to keep their heads above water, but they may struggle to do any more than this. In a crisis survival is the priority, and these communities will not be considering how structural inequality may be adding to their vulnerability and victimhood. In the context of international intervention, international actors will assist communities in crisis by providing the support and resources these communities require to rebuild, but sustainability is often disregarded. In the implementation of ‘resistance-building’ initiatives, international aid providers may believe they are helping the community overcome challenges. However, are these initiatives tackling the root cause or do they merely uphold the status quo?

In international interventions, the narratives of resilience can allow for actors to legitimise inaction on the premise that these communities are managing without their support. Adversity takes many different forms, and while many are unexpected and uncontrollable, others are systemic and ongoing – and in many situations these will intertwine. While many peacebuilding operations will ensure they address the situation on the ground, the systemic structures are often masked through resilience narratives. This ignorance of systemic inequalities places the onus on the communities to be resilient to issues far beyond their control, things they should not be subjected to in the first place. In the case of Iraq, there is more at play than political instability. There is a long history of imperial involvement from international actors who have manipulated the political system in their vision and only created further difficulties for Iraqi citizens. While there is much admiration for the resilience of the Iraqi population, this only hides the true extent of the difficulties they are facing and legitimises inaction as they seem to be doing ‘well enough’.

Resilience is an unhelpful concept. While it typically holds many positive associations, it is also used to hide many challenges. “Although we may see glimpses of their pain oozing from the cracks of their shattered self they have hurriedly assembled together, this is often fleeting” (Eden 2020). We should not expect anyone to hide their struggles or address them with strength and positivity – we should be asking why they had to experience it in the first place and tackle the root cause. Prevention should be the priority – resilience should not be necessary.

“ Stop calling me resilient, Boundary Way, Belfast, Northern Ireland .” © llan Leonard

Eden, Lys. 14 th August 2020. ‘ The Problem with Resilience’. Children and Families Social Work, Richard Devine’s Social Work Blog. https://childrenandfamiliessocialwork.wordpress.com/2020/08/14/the-problem-with-resilience/

Traynor, Michael. 2018. ‘ Guest Editorial: What’s Wrong with Resilience’ in Journal of Research Nursing Vol 23(1): 5-8.

By Maria Zoe Caimi

Empowerment can be defined as the act of giving the marginalised, usually women, an opportunity to demonstrate a certain degree of autonomy and self-determination in their everyday lives. In recent decades, the West has taken a keen interest in empowerment, seeing it as the panacea for all of women’s ills. This view has caused empowerment programmes to evolve into a magic bullet used by the West to justify their establishment of liberal-capitalism abroad. Show More

Consequently, the term “empowerment” has been both overused and abused by neo-colonialists tasked to “liberate” the poor from their oppressive conditions and depressing environments. Mainstream empowerment discourse has thus done very little in terms of sincerely empowering disenfranchised women, and has instead amalgamated non-Western women’s identity into a single identity of desperate victimhood. Therefore, we must question whether the concept of empowerment is truly all that empowering.

The colonial project has always involved white saviours “rescuing” the Other women from their own supposedly “crippling” societies. As it exists today, empowerment is conducted apolitically, involving the dissemination of Westernised skills, tools, and knowledge. Rather than providing power, empowerment now provides women with livelihoods; instead of re-structuring oppressive state foundations, empowerment trains women with capitalist skills and know-how; instead of encouraging agency, empowerment gives women the restricted choice of either sewing or raising livestock. Evidently, the word “empowerment” has become shrouded with neo-colonial and patriarchal language that has made us, the general public, blind to the fact that “empowerment” has in actuality depoliticised the very people it purports to support. In fact, these same women do not deem these programmes as all that empowering: ‘I never considered what I liked to do, I ‘chose’ this training in sewing, because it was the only option… I suppose because, this is a fitting job, for girls.’ (Cronin-Furman et al.). These women understand that the supposedly “empowering” crusades are in reality just a means of detaching them further away from the politics of their nations, and instead deeper into the void of the imperialist structure that reiterates a gender-based culture. Empowerment programmes tell women that their role is to cook, to sew, and to raise. Hence, how can one expect women to fulfil their potentials? How can we expect women to even hope for an alternative future?

Empowerment in today’s world has been invoked frequently but with only an offer of shallow solutions to a prolonged problem. Empowerment’s connection with Western narratives means that, rather than bridging the gap that secure women with the social-political world, women’s empowerment has become connected to economics. This makes it difficult to reformulate societal structures that restrict and subjugate. Subsequent depoliticisation further prevents the Other women from challenging the dominant industry-oriented objective, and instead chains their hands to the machinery they are forced to operate. So is empowerment all that empowering? No, not at all. Instead, it impoverishes, belittles, and silences. De-radicalisation of women through “feminine” teachings makes it very hard for me to see empowerment programmes as anything more than sustaining a Western, male, and white dominated hierarchy. What these women need is a little less neo-colonial clout, and a bit more consciousness of what empowerment means to them . 

What empowerment does not show us: a photograph from a Global Giving project that shows Indian women learning the craft of sewing through a white-led empowerment scheme that asks the international community to donate and help ‘rural unemployed women… full fill their daily bread and [meet the] school expenses of their children’ (MERDS).

Cronin-Furman, Kate, et al. “Emissaries of Empowerment.” The City College of New York , The City College of New York, Sept. 2017, www.ccny.cuny.edu/colinpowellschool/emissaries-empowerment . Accessed 16 Nov. 2020.

Muthamil Education and Rural Development Society (MERDS). “Empowering Rural Women through Sewing Training.” GlobalGiving , GlobalGiving,  www.globalgiving.org/projects/empowering-rural-women-through-sewing-training/ . Accessed 17 Nov. 2020.

By Jasmine Humphrey

Is peace possible? Well, after ten weeks of invaluable IR3048 discussions and a year filled with crises that ranged from police brutality to a global pandemic, this question has grown to resonate with me. I feel that there are various changes needed to make the world a more sustainably peaceful place, and, amongst the most important, is centralising local voices. As a language student especially, I feel we must emphasise engaging with the right discourse to build peace. Show More

Bruce Bonta’s (1996) work on peaceful societies gives an insight into the importance of listening to the local. Bonta shows us that these societies’ perspectives on conflict differ greatly from those of the West. For example, they use methods ranging from self-restraint to humour to mitigate “harmful and destructive” conflict (413). Something that really stands out amongst grassroots approaches is Fambul Tok: engaging people around a bonfire to apologise and forgive, something that has worked in Sierra Leone (Hoffman, 2013). This links to the importance of trust, both internally and externally. Pamela Caracciolo, a peacekeeper in Cyprus says, “we must not forget that any mission is still a foreign element in the country…” (2020). A lack of understanding can often have damaging consequences, and this was seen in the UN’s 2010 blunder at its Mirebalais camp in Haiti; mismanagement of MINUSTAH’s wastewater catalysed a cholera epidemic directly after a major earthquake (Maertens, 2018: 1).

A final example of where listening to the local may foster peace lies at the heart of the white saviourism argument (BBC, 2019). Rather than helping, often this type of “support” takes away from local jobs, damaging communities. Sadly, we see this often: white celebrities in the middle of photographs surrounded by young children of colour. This creates, often inadvertently, a highly damaging victim/saviour complex, and points to a larger problem: the “danger of a single story”, which is articulated by Chimamanda Adichie (2009). Just as white saviourism tells a story of an underdeveloped Africa (BBC, 2019), Chimamanda discusses how her American roommate couldn’t believe that she could speak good English. Adichie suggests that this likely comes from the way that we are conditioned, through things like children’s storybooks, to believe certain things about the people who inhabit our world.

Giving locals a voice allows for a discourse that is free of such Western ideologies, and can foster critical thinking about conflict, peace, and resilience. Yet, some sceptics see this “as an affront to ‘liberal peace’” (Mac Ginty and Richmond, 2013) which takes power away from decision-makers in the West who affect communities across the globe. But, if we learn to humanise problems, then we can begin to foster empathy and leave the “political indifference” (Barnett, 1997: 562), cited as one of the UN’s pitfalls during the Rwandan genocide, behind. Above all, it is important to keep this discourse alive. Whether regarding intersectionality and listening to those discriminated on multiple levels, or de-colonialism and incorporating voices that are disentangled from a Eurocentric discourse, centralising local voices is of utmost importance.

Language holds the power to imprison, but also to identify and free.

Image: https://www.mountainfilm.org/media/fambul-tok .

Sierra Leoneans engage in Fambul Tok.

Adichie, C. N. (2009). The danger of a single story . Available: https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story/up-next?language=en . Last accessed 25th Nov 2020.

Barnett, M. (1997). The UN Security Council, Indifference, and Genocide in Rwanda . Cultural Anthropology . 12(4), pp.551-578.

BBC. (2019). Stacey Dooley ‘white saviour’ row interview with David Lammy who objects . Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ej1XRtYUfTM . Last accessed 25th Nov 2020.

Bonta, B. (1996) ‘Conflict Resolution among Peaceful Societies: The Culture of Peacefulness’. Journal of Peace Research . 33(4), pp. 403–420. doi: 10.1177/0022343396033004003.

Caracciolo, P. (2020). Building Trust in Cyprus during times of COVID-19 . Available: https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/building-trust-cyprus-during-times-of-covid-19 . Last accessed 25th Nov 2020.

Hoffman, L. (2013). Justice in the Round- Fambul Tok and Community Healing: Libby Hoffman at TEDxYouth@CEHS . Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TOtbLzwa3zY . Last accessed 25th Nov 2020.

Mac Ginty, R. and Richmond, O. (2013). The Local Turn in Peace Building: a critical agenda for peace. Third World Quarterly . 34 (5), 763-783.

Maertens, L. and Shoshan, M. (2018) “Greening Peacekeeping: The Environmental Impact of UN Peace Operations,” New York: International Peace Institute. [Online]. Last accessed 25th Nov 2020.

Mountainfilm. (2020). Fambul Tok . Available: https://www.mountainfilm.org/media/fambul-tok . Last accessed 25th Nov 2020.

By Grace Bitner

The United Nations is one of the largest protectors of human rights around the world, yet the power of the permanent five members (Russia, China, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France) on the UN Security Council (UNSC) demonstrates that, structurally, the UN is controlled by those five countries. Specifically looking at intervention, these countries have the ultimate power: they authorize mandates, alter them, and end them – demonstrating either success or a lack of will to continue. Identifying these oppositional patterns – a structure for the few, yet a humanitarian discourse for the many – led me to question which aspect has more power. Who does the UN serve? Show More

Analysis of the UN’s interventions (or lack thereof) helped me find my answer. In the post-Cold War era, the UN began authorising multi-dimensional peacekeeping missions that foregrounded the importance of human rights. This was codified in the Responsibility to Protect doctrine (R2P) in 2005. Since the establishment of R2P, the UN maintains the right to intervene in a sovereign nation if it fails to secure the safety of its citizens. This would support that notion that the UN exists as an institution to protect the rights of all humans. Yet, the history of peacekeeping operations indicates otherwise.

In 1993, the UNSC mandated the UN Operation in Somalia II, explicitly stating the need to intervene to protect humanitarian aid distribution efforts. However, the mission ended in barely two years, after the U.S. withdrew support for the mission following an incident in which 18 U.S. soldiers were killed (alongside hundreds of Somalis). Despite the humanitarian urgency, the U.S.’s casualties and influence over the mission mattered more.

In Libya in 2011, the UNSC authorised a military intervention based on R2P doctrine for the first time. UN troops used indiscriminate force against combatants and civilians alike. The disregard for civilian lives (whose safety was the discursive reason for intervention) supports accusations that the UN actually intervened to establish a more West-friendly government in oil-rich Libya. Indeed, the UN forces quickly deposed Muammar Gaddafi and withdrew without establishing structures to ensure human rights. Clearly, humanitarianism was not their priority.

The lack of intervention in Syria emphasizes the above points. Bashar al-Assad’s government has committed crimes against humanity (including using chemical weapons against civilians), and the conflict is one of the largest generators of refugees and internally displaced persons in the world. Yet, Russia supports the regime and benefits from arms sales to the Syrian state. Unsurprisingly, Russia has prevented all resolutions authorising intervention in Syria.

Syria is not the only example. Many events warrant intervention on humanitarian grounds, from the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya in Myanmar or the Uyghurs in China, to the decades of violence by the Israeli state in Gaza, yet there is no action from the UNSC. Even when they do act, such as in Somalia and Libya, they often fail to establish lasting humanitarian relief. It is clear to me that the UN’s discursive ideals are a far cry from its structural reality. The UN serves the special interests of the few, at the expense of the many.

A plume of smoke rises in the suburbs of Tripoli, Libya, after a UN-approved NATO bombing killed Libyan civilians during the ‘humanitarian’ intervention. Source: Rights group: NATO failed to investigate airstrike casualties in Libya (cnn.com)

By Alexandra Kenyon

Prior to beginning this module, I thought I had a pretty good grasp on a “critical” perspective of international relations. However, I quickly realised that I was not as aware as I had thought – there were many issues that have been discussed that I had not thought twice about: I was feeding into the privileged obliviousness that so many in the West do. A key example of this would be my lack of awareness surrounding photojournalism and its use in humanitarian intervention. Show More

Firstly, photojournalism often produces images which paint pictures of victims who need saving by privileged, white heroes from the West. Looking at it from a critical perspective, I can now see that it is a tool of white saviourism: an extension of a colonial-like, superiority complex by the Global North which assumes that all of those in the Global South do not have the agency to help themselves and so need charity to “save them”. David Lammy (2019) uses Comic Relief and its images of white celebrities visiting underprivileged children without agency or parents in sight as an example of white saviourism is photojournalism. He emphasises that although they may mean well – aiming to raise awareness and encourage charity – these images do very little to actually educate the public about the reality in these situations. Instead, they play on “tired and unhelpful stereotypes” produced by Orientalist and Eurocentric knowledge. For example, they fail to acknowledge the emerging middle class of Africa, portraying African people as a single, vulnerable and poverty-stricken group.

Furthermore, photojournalism can also be problematic in conflicts. When conflict affects a country, photojournalists are some of the first people on the ground to document the events. But there is an inherent issue with white photographers coming from the West to capture fleeting images of individuals in their most vulnerable moments. It means for a lack of agency and consent from these individuals, whose faces will be available for the world to see, often in a very sensationalist manner. Additionally, these photographers from the West can use the images to exemplify their own Western-biased content, rather than the full story, resembling an Orientalist narrative and contributing to a Eurocentric hold on knowledge production. Finally, although there are norms and rules in place to prevent journalists properly engaging with individuals on the ground, it seems very problematic and unhumanitarian to me that these photojournalists can take photos of people struggling and do nothing to intervene or help, as with “The Vulture and the Little Girl” taken for the New York Times in 1993.

Overall, these issues highlighted by photojournalism in a humanitarian intervention setting showed me an issue that I was previously ignorant to, demonstrating that this module has been effective in developing my critical understanding of such matters. Furthermore, I think that the critical perspective of photojournalism in this context is an effective demonstration of wider issues in peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention: such as a lack of agency for indigenous people; an inherent superiority complex by the Global North; and a performative narrative where many actions are made simply to follow the norms of the international community and benefit self-interests.

Source : @sjdooley Instagram.

This photo, taken as part of Comic Relief, is a clear demonstration of the ‘white saviourism’ issue in photojournalism and humanitarian aid.

David Lammy “The world does not need any more white saviours” 27 th February 2019, Twitter. Available at https://twitter.com/davidlammy/status/1100807931233226752?lang=en [Accessed 16/11/20].

Kevin Carter “The Vulture and the Little Girl” March 1993, The New York Times.

Stacey Dooley (@sjdooley) “Here filming with Comic Relief” 23 rd February 2019, Instagram. Available at https://www.instagram.com/p/BuO732uhh4J/ [Accessed 16/11/20].

By Catriona R.

Arguments like “boys will be boys” or “supply and demand” are frequently used to defend individuals accused of misconduct and create the narrative that it is a marginal issue, an inevitability in conflict and crisis. It diminishes it to the point of being just another aspect of intervention and peacekeeping. The women are effectively removed from the dialogue, through omissions in reports and lack of consequence for the perpetrators. When casualties of conflict are mentioned they are frequently young men with promising futures or to civilians without description. Sexual exploitation is downgraded to collateral of conflict.

The UN is aware sexual exploitation occurs in all missions to varying degrees and provides ongoing sexual conduct training to all personnel for the duration of the mission. However, the individuals/units/systems in place often have diplomatic immunity for actions against civilians. Regardless of the intended use of this, it is used to allow individuals to get away with sexual abuse. On top of this, many that are dismissed for misconduct then return to their home nation where they face no further action. The distance between the crime and the justice system facilitate a lack of consequence.

Sex scandals can be incredibly threatening to the UN, critically harming its reputation and trust on the ground and gravely harming chances of success. Fundamentally it undermines their notability as a protector of human rights and vulnerable civilians and innocents. Through this fear, attempts are made to cover up wrong doing, deny incidents happened, diminish the problem, and write it off as a by-product of the presence of any kind of intervention, not limited to peacekeeping. It accumulates to build a fact: sexual exploitation and abuse is a cost of peacekeeping and intervention.

This is unacceptable given the UN’s idealistic foundation and roots in the aftermath of WWII and the Holocaust. It is by nature in a changing game. By denying the abuses and misconduct at the hands of peacekeepers they lose credibility as an organisation striving for the end of humanitarian violations. They should instead directly take accountability for the actions committed, and immediately respond with a punitive course to the perpetrator. Active responses would establish firmer trust and credibility as a protective body with a genuine care for the people. The victims of sexual exploitation already live with the consequences of this misconduct and abuse, and they deserve to be put back into the story as more than just collateral. Peoples safety is not the cost of peacekeeping, it’s the purpose.

Ramita Navai documentary – “UN sex abuse scandal”

Larysa Kondracki – “Whistle-blower”

Yale University and New York City College Survey, 2005, Public Opinion Survey of UNAMSIL, https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/past/unamsil/factsheet5_survey.pdf

By Surina Martin

Crime Without Punishment: Peacekeeping and Sexual Abuse

Such instances are not rare. Accusations of sexual abuse from peacekeepers have been made in Haiti, Bosnia, and the Central African Republic, to name just a few. Often, peacekeepers can exploit their position as aid suppliers to elicit sexual acts from civilians in exchange for resources. Abuse in this form, including the rape of a 14 year old girl in CAR, is labelled as “transactional” sex by the UN, failing to acknowledge the inherent power dynamics between aid givers and recipients and alleviating the UN of any obligation towards victims. Peacekeepers enjoy a unique impunity in conflict zones, since their presence is temporary and the likelihood of legal action is weakened by the political instability that warrants such presence in the first place.

The prevalence of sexual abuse committed by those in power is not something that happens in the abstract, committed by faceless Blue Helmets in faraway places, either. I am reminded of the time when esteemed Canadian UN official, Peter Dalglish, visited my school to talk about his work with street kids in Nepal and Afghanistan. His lectures were described as “motivational” and “enlightening” and, admittedly, led me to consider humanitarian work for the first time. In 2018, he was convicted of raping two Nepali boys and sentenced to 9 years in prison. Whilst this example represents an instance when the abuser was held accountable, all too often sexual abuse perpetrated by UN workers suffers from an absence of international liability; their legal status falls in their home country’s jurisdiction. Of the 42 accusations of sexual abuse from UN officials in the CAR, only 1 criminal charge has been filed. The UN has little power or indeed real incentive to hold member states accountable, since their need for bodies to “maintain international peace and security” overrides any commitment to pursuing justice for victims of sexual abuse.

International Criminal Law frameworks are currently lacking in comprehensive approaches towards peacekeeper accountability. The ICC cannot, at present, persecute peacekeepers for sexual abuse since international crime is purpose-oriented, focusing on intent to “oppress, subjugate or destroy local populations” (Freedman, 2018); without evidence to suggest such intent, individual acts of sexual abuse fall outwith its scope. If the UN is to maintain its image as an actor of justice, concerted efforts must be made to address the crimes committed by those who work in its name and hold them accountable. Failure to do so perpetuates the cycle of sexual abuse and human trafficking in conflict zones, which not only causes severe trauma to individuals, but undermines UN missions and leads to further instability.

Freedman, R., 2018. UNaccountable: A New Approach to Peacekeepers and Sexual Abuse. European Journal of International Law , 29(3), pp.961-985.

Sieff, K., 2016. ‘Sometimes when I’m alone with my baby, I think about killing him. He reminds me of the man who raped me.’. The Washington Post , [online] Available at: < https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/world/2016/02/27/peacekeepers/?utm_term=.8d682a54284b > [Accessed 22 November 2020].

The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2019. When The Peacekeepers Are Part Of The Problem . [online] Available at: < https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/when-the-peacekeepers-are-part-of-the-problem/ > [Accessed 22 November 2020].

To be blunt, regionalisation – the process of the devolution of peacekeeping missions in some capacity to organisations closer to the action – is the way forward if the United Nations is as profoundly dedicated to tackling climate change and the related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as they appear to be. The 17 SDGs promote gender equality, economic security and a level access to electricity for all amongst other commitments. Show More

The EU and many national governments of countries such as the Maldives have called for changes to be made to the pollution and inequalities caused or not confronted by UN Peacekeeping missions (IISD 2018). Regionalisation is the perfect way to tackle this – less transport across the world is necessary, local resources can be distributed and a greater sense of trust between neighbouring countries which encourages future partnership should a successful mission arise.

Important when regionalisation takes place, is to make sure that states who are unable and often not responsible in the first place, tackle climate change and inequalities with the external support in place from the UN if necessary – but without them controlling the whole operation. Delegating operations to regional organisations helps to do this and also helps to free up funds from the UN which can then go towards reaching these SDGs.

UNIFIL (The UN Interim Force in Lebanon) saw great collaborations with women activists that helped to increase their political sphere and publicity within Lebanon (UN 2020) that worked towards goal 5 of the SDGs. Further regionalisation efforts by organisations such as ASEAN (Association of South Asian Nations) and the AU (African Union) have been seen across the associated continents. The Organisation of American States even goes as far as suggesting there is a significantly greater chance of mission success from regionalisation (Barnett 1995, 418). Barnett attributes this to a greater understanding of common cultures/similar ideologies, geographical vicinity to the area which result in increased trust and a common understanding of what the aims are without a Western input on areas of development necessary. This helps the UN tackle their carbon footprint for transporting troops and aid whilst maintaining the ability to become involved if they feel it is needed. There is also the added bonus for the regional organisations that work is being given to many – helping to tackle economic inequality and poverty.

All of the SDGs are interlinked in a sense – helping the economy by providing jobs (goal 8), helps people live more sustainable lifestyles (goal 11) and thus efficiently feed their families (goal 2) which in turn leads to better health (goal 3). Thus, regionalisation is simply the most efficient way forward for UN Peacekeeping if they are as dedicated to combating inequality and climate change as they suggest they are as it helps them to tackle multiple issues facing society at once.

Barnett, Michael. 1995. “Partners in Peace? The UN, Regional Organisations, and Peace-Keeping.” Review of International Studies , 21: 411 – 433. https://home.gwu.edu/~barnett/articles/1995_partners_ris.pdf

International Institute for Sustainable Development. 2018. “UN Security Council Discusses UN Peacekeeping in Context of Reform Processes.” SDG Knowledge Hub , April 3, 2018. http://sdg.iisd.org/news/un-security-council-discusses-un-peacekeeping-in-context-of-reform-processes/

United Nations. 2015. “Sustainable Development Goals Kick Off With Start of New Year.” United Nations News , December 30, 2015. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2015/12/sustainable-development-goals-kick-off-with-start-of-new-year/

United Nations. 2020. “UN Peacekeeping Chief Outlines Reforms Needed to Keep Operations Fit-for-Purpose.” United Nations News: Peace and Security, September 14, 2020. https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/09/1072322

By Katherine Cully

Ready to explore local peace processes like the Gacaca Courts in Rwanda, I began a short documentary on YouTube, when partway through, I felt a sudden rush of horror and tightness in my chest. The scene in front of me showed clothes, jewelry, and personal items that remained in a church where thousands were killed as part of the Rwandan Genocide in 1994. Show More

The scale of the human tragedy that had taken place in that church was clear, but this striking image also tugged at my memory. I had seen something like this before. Five years ago, I had the opportunity to travel to Auschwitz in connection with a seminar I was taking on the Holocaust. I distinctly remember the part of the memorial displaying the shoes and belongings of the victims. We were told that remembrance is important “so that the passage of time does not lead to the forgetting of what must never be forgotten” and that nothing like this would happen again (Forman & Dean 2015).

As a young sixteen-year-old, I was taken with this idea, but now time and an education that includes a decolonial perspective of international relations have revealed the truth: “Never Again” only means “Never again … in the West”.

The Rwandan Genocide exemplifies this failure of the same international community who, after the Second World War, swore to prevent those atrocities. US inaction is especially noted because it avoided using the word genocide publicly (Carroll 2004). Even though its intelligence had detailed, accurate reports of the killings, the US ignored a human rights atrocity simply because it had no strategic or economic interest in Rwanda (Carroll 2004). How often are situations like this ignored in countries outside the sphere of the West’s interests?

Abandoned, Rwandans had to stop the genocide themselves and pick up the pieces afterwards (Journeyman Pictures 2010). More than 120,000 people were waiting to be sentenced -more than the International Criminal Court could handle- so Rwandans created a justice system that was specific to the local communities it was meant to serve (Journeyman Pictures 2010). True healing was not achieved far away in international courts, but it could only happen when the community came together and engaged with each other. Unlike most Western forms of law, this system focused on reconciliation, where the guilty person could seek forgiveness and the opportunity to return to society (Journeyman Pictures 2010). The Rwandans understood what was needed for their own country, forced to find solutions and a way out of conflict as this tragedy was ignored by the international community.

The Rwandan Genocide indicates clearly that IR is desperate for decolonial and nonwestern perspectives. Despite their demonstrated effectiveness, local solutions are sidelined in both scholarship and practice as the UN remains the grand focus for peace building. “Never Again” will not come to pass unless scholars and practitioners of IR understand what it means to decolonize that statement. We must not let peacekeeping be subjected to the whims of powerful western countries. We must not let non-western conflicts and people be ignored. We must embrace solutions of true justice and healing.

The failure of “Never Again”: Clothing serves as a memory of the Rwandan Genocide of 1994 (left) and the Holocaust 1941-1945 (right).

[Video Still (Journeyman Pictures 2010) & Personal Photo .]

Carroll, Rory. 2004. “US Chose to Ignore Rwandan Genocide”. The Guardian . 31 March 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/31/usa.rwanda .

Forman, Ira & Nicholas Dean. 2015. Letter to Author (and Class). United States Department of State. 5 October 2015.

Journeyman Pictures. 2010. “Gacaca Justice.” By Bengt Nilsson. October 2009. Video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiDea-PNoyw .

By Maria Ornes

After peacekeeping, is there justice? An analysis on the efficacy of the ICC and its role as a peacekeeping tool

There are many criticisms, externally and internally, as to why the ICC is not as effective as many nations had hoped. Internally the ICC tries individuals, not states, therefore offering a certain level of accountability while failing to address the systemic nature of many of the crimes committed, such as the local ideologies and contexts that led to the conflict in the first place. The ICC only has jurisdiction in three circumstances: when a crime is committed by a member state of the Rome Statute, when a crime is committed in the territory of a member state, or when the UNSC refers the case to the ICC. This is all assuming that nations are willing to cooperate with the ICC, which is often not the case. In regards to Afghanistan, NATO refused to comply with information requests, exhibiting the challenges the ICC faces externally. Additionally, as previously mentioned the UNSC can refer nations to the ICC; however, the UNSC has become a place for major powers to exert their veto power in order to achieve their own personal agendas. Just in 2014 Russia and China vetoed an attempt to bring the Syrian regime before the court. 

The lack of participation in the court by major powers has led to accusations that the ICC is just a new form of neocolonialism, especially since the majority of cases tried are from African nations. Moreover, if non-member states such as the US can refer states to the ICC and yet not subject itself to its jurisdiction, then is the court an effective tool for international accountability and justice? While I would argue that it is ineffective in this sense and does bear signs of neocolonialism in regards to what cases are tried, I also believe the ICC acts as a form of peacekeeping in itself and as a deterrence for future violence. Some argue that the existence of the ICC complicates mediations and therefore hampers the peacemaking process; however, I believe the recognition the ICC brings to these crimes can help achieve accountability in the future and the presence of the ICC can be used as a potential negotiating approach. The role the ICC plays symbolically is important for justice even if the system itself is flawed. In the future, systemic changes to the structure are necessary; however, this will not occur so long as powerful nations are able to view themselves as ‘above the law’ and use the ICC to adjudicate scapegoats in order to avoid for addressing underlying conditions that led to the conflict in the first place. 

Cartoon by Bruce Petty, from ‘Justice in Conflict’.

An illustration of how ineffective the ICC is in regards to global powers

Alterman, Owen. ICC Involvement on Libya and the Importance of the Court. Institute for National Security Studies, 2011, www.jstor.org/stable/resrep08402 . Accessed 24 Nov. 2020.

International Criminal Court Nashie “Signatories of the Rome Statute”, Available at: https://internationalcriminalcourtnashie.weebly.com/signatories-of-the-rome-statute.html . Accessed 25 Nov. 2020

Jo, Hyeran, and Beth A. Simmons. “Can the International Criminal Court Deter Atrocity?” International Organization , vol. 70, no. 3, 2016, pp. 443–475., www.jstor.org/stable/24758127 . Accessed 25 Nov. 2020

Kyneswood, Natalie. “Limits of Law in Ending Impunity for State Crime: Time to Re-Frame the International Criminal Court’s Mandate?” State Crime Journal , vol. 8, no. 2, 2019, pp. 219–240. JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/statecrime.8.2.0219 . Accessed 24 Nov. 2020

Crisis on crisis: COVID-19 in the Gaza Strip

It’s been seven months since COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic, and it’s hard to remember what life was like before it all. I almost forgot that Brexit was still a thing as the headlines were dominated by coronavirus. Show More

Yet for many areas affected by fragility, conflict and violence (FCV), already existing tensions did not take a peripheral position but were rather exacerbated by the outbreak of the virus, which necessitated effective communication between governments, health services and the public. One such affected area is the Gaza strip, which continues to be a major site of conflict between Israel and Palestine. A common attitude towards COVID-19 is to believe it does not discriminate; it has the potential to infect anybody and thus everybody should take the same precautions.

This outlook, however, fails to consider the situational factors that compound the virus’ threat. The lack of nuance in coronavirus guidelines speaks to our own tendency to view medical knowledge as absolute rather than intersubjective. Many of the guidelines from the WHO, imported into countries across the globe with little regard to the context on the ground, become unfeasible when you consider access to clean water or extreme population density, for example. These are just two problems Gaza faces in their management of COVID-19, accentuated by continued disputes between the governments of Palestine and Israel.

Copyright 2020 The Associated Press. All rights reserved.

External Sources

UNRWA, Jabalia Camp . https://www.unrwa.org/where-we-work/gaza-strip/jabalia-camp

Could Western societies become more internally peaceful?

Without formal means of policing and punishment, would Western societies be ravaged by violent conflict? Many would contend that violence is inevitable, necessitating these structures. However, ‘peaceful societies’, where violence is rare, do exist – showing internal conflicts can be managed through alternative methods that prioritise peace and socialisation of the rejection of violence (Bonta, 1996). Show More

I think achieving such a ‘culture of peace’ would be unrealistic at the larger and more complex scale of the Western state. However, current Western conflict management methods such as criminal justice systems and policing, as well as arguably not being effective in their duty of protecting the public, can aggravate conflict and (re)produce physical and structural violence (Dearden, 2018). They require reform in order for internal positive peace to really be achieved.

A key example of conflict being aggravated is the response to Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests this summer in the USA. Protestors reported events beginning peacefully, before being transformed into violent conflict by police with rubber bullets, tear gas and night sticks (Amnesty International UK, 2020). I want to avoid the trap of just discussing America though, for crucially this is more than an American issue. Personally, growing up in the UK, I equated police with safety. I now recognise that as being a privileged and white-washed perspective. Reignited in May by the brutal killing of George Floyd in Minnesota, BLM draws attention to the recurrence of police violence against Black men and women in the UK. Furthermore, institutional racism occurs at every level of the UK criminal justice system (Koram, 2020). 

Bonta (1996, p.404) suggested that more violent societies such as the UK, or America as he explicitly discussed, prioritise fulfilling justice when dealing with conflict. On the surface this may seem accurate: a normative objective of the police force and criminal justice system is to pursue justice – it’s in the name. However, I don’t think it’s true. The systems disproportionately criminalise specific sectors of the population and contribute to structural violence – this is stark injustice which needs to be tackled to promote a more peaceful society.

What could change look like? In regard to the police, some go as far as to say the force should be ‘defunded’ or abolished completely, and funds be redirected to welfare etc. I think one of the premises behind this, of focusing more on the roots of conflict and social injustice, rather than policing the symptoms, is convincing. However, I am less convinced by the idea of totally abolishing the structure. Perhaps a valuable change could be targeting specific elements of police training such as de-escalation training and implicit bias training, with funding, or encouraging closer relationships between communities and police. This could lead to more just policing, at least in the meantime whilst the political climate is probably not conducive to more radical change. Other aspects of the justice system also need overhauled to tackle institutional racism. For such reform to happen will be difficult – the system has been underfunded in the UK for years. However, change is vital for greater positive peace to be achieved.

‘Protest – Black Lives Matter – London 2020’

Image courtesy of Livvy Adjei, © 2020, some rights reserved. https://www.flickr.com/photos/livvya/49981078341

Amnesty International UK. 2020. “125 incidents of police violence during Black Lives Matter protests – a new report.” Amesty International UK , August 4, 2020. 

https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/125-incidents-police-violence-during-black-lives-matter-protests-new-report . 

Bonta, Bruce D. 1996. “Conflict Resolution among Peaceful Societies: The Culture of Peacefulness.” Journal of Peace Research 33(4):403-420. 

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343396033004003 .

Dearden, Lizzie. 2018. “Police forces are ‘failing the public’ due to cuts, Police Federation chief warns .” The Independent , August 12, 2018.  

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/police-uk-stop-responding-crime-budget-cuts-demand-federation-violence-demand-officers-a8485316.html

Koram, Ko. 2020. “Systemic racism and police brutality are British problems too.” The Guardian , June 4, 2020.

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jun/04/systemic-racism-police-brutality-british-problems-black-lives-matter

Throughout history, war correspondents have played a vital role in bringing the horrors of conflict to the attention of the world. However, there is a fine line between shocking world leaders into action to promote peace, and aiding the perpetuation of violence against victims of war by using politically-charged, gendered and neocolonial language. Show More  

Many would argue that the majority of people’s perceptions of parts of the globe are formed through exposure to the media. However, the power that the media possesses over how certain places and populations are perceived is often abused, knowingly or unknowingly (although even in the case of the latter, this is inexcusable). As someone who has grown up in the UK and only really travelled between countries in ‘the West’, when I was very young my first perception of the Middle East was that it was entirely unsafe, and a region that only knew and would only ever know conflict. This is the image of the Middle East that has become perpetuated by Western media. Whilst of course there are areas of violence in the region, not all places are plagued by conflict. However, there is little media attention paid to anything else other than violence, and stories of prosperity and cooperation are often ignored. Hence, the media has caused perceptions of conflict and the Middle East to become almost inseparable in the Western psyche, in both written reports and photojournalism (see the image attached as an example). Consequently it has become easier for Western politicians to justify perpetuating further violence in the region (such as was seen in the build up to the 2001 US-led invasion of Afghanistan after the attacks of 9/11). 

Furthermore, I believe that very little media attention is paid to the fact that many of the problems faced in the region are a direct result of Western intervention, occurring either during the colonial/mandate period, or in more recent years. Instead, the problems faced are solely blamed on the indigenous communities, who are portrayed as being made up of unreasonably violent men and helpless women who are victims of suppression. Not only do these gendered stereotypes (which are wildly inaccurate for the most part) ignore female perpetrators and male victims of violence (ignoring non-binary people altogether), but they also perpetuate colonial ways of thinking, stripping indigenous communities of their agency, as they are seen as either too troublesome or too weak to contribute to a meaningful peace process. Hence, indigenous peace initiatives are ignored, which can later lead to the recurrence of problems that could otherwise have been solved, which external actors were either unaware of or didn’t allocate sufficient importance to. Therefore, for peace processes to succeed in the long term, indigenous voices must be listened to. Consequently, I believe that war correspondents have a duty to humanise the stories of individuals, so that they can be involved in such processes in the future. Journalists must prioritise the centralisation of the agency of their subjects, in addition to avoiding perpetuating damaging stereotypes of regions and certain populations. It will only be when this is achieved that war reporting will benefit its subjects to the greatest extent. 

Photo reference: “Isis fighters parade through Raqqa in Syria” – Source: AP. The Guardian. 2014. The Terrifying Rise of Isis: $2bnin loot, online killings and an army on the run. June 16. Accessed October 25 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/16/terrifying-rise-of-isis-iraq-executions

What comes first : justice or peace?

The debate of justice or peace, and which comes first, implies a universally-applicable prioritisation of the two contested concepts. I argue that such a prioritisation and generalisation is not an apparent possibility. Furthermore, while justice may be seen as a prerequisite to peace, I argue that simultaneously addressing both may be more productive to secure a sustained justice and peace. Show More

Firstly, I argue that this debate necessitates specific, contextualised understanding of “peace” and “justice”, rather than across-the-board generalisations. Definitions by international organisations and academics may, at times, erase or gloss over the realities of human suffering and anguish that are deeply rooted in race, gender, social, economic, and historical contexts. It is important to recognise that both “justice” and “peace” are contested concepts, and their meanings diverge between and within different levels of authority. For example, local communities may prioritise reconciliation and rebuilding communities. While the international community, of which tends to echo Western views, imposes their prioritisation of seeking retributive justice for what they term as “human rights” violations over, and in order to secure, peace. In an attempt to further their agenda, the international community’s political focus on convicting perpetrators to ensure that violence and human rights violations do not happen again sometimes overpowers local voices. Here, in no way am I claiming that the international nor local community are monolithic or homogenous, rather that there tends to be a divergence between external actors and grassroots communities’ conceptualisations and agendas of “peace” and “justice”.

Secondly, while justice may appear as a prerequisite to peace, I argue that both justice and peace must come together to ensure that both are sustainable. Without peace, the absence of violence, it is difficult to have opportunities and a safe space for justice. Without justice, peace cannot be sustained because grievances are not addressed, the cycle of revenge is not broken, and root causes are not addressed.

While I, far removed from any conflict zone or violence, reflect on the intractability of the debate and argue that justice and peace should be accorded equal importance and urgency, what hangs in the balance are the lives of victims, many of whom continue to suffer from the effects of violence. Their voices and demands for peace and justice are picked up only when they can be sensationalised into headlines or when violence starts to fissure fragile negotiations and ceasefires. Otherwise, these voices go unheard and are granted little weight to their understanding of “peace” and “justice”. Instead of imposing what we think should be done in order to achieve “justice” and “peace” as end-goals, it is time to put aside our armchair saviour complex. We need to uplift local voices, amplify their agency, and take grassroot approaches seriously.

In conclusion, this debate is intractable because of the multiple axes of divergent conceptualisations, agendas and contexts. There is no simple answer. However, choosing to listen to different views, needs and prioritisations of “justice” and/or “peace” contributes to a more holistic approach and is necessary to sustain both justice and peace.

Justice and Peace Illustration by Linas Garsys/The Washington Times Accessed 26 Oct 2020

https://www.washingtontimes.com/multimedia/image/b1walkerlgjusticepejpg/

By Claire Elman

In our conflict management course, we have learned that the United Nations peacekeeping ideology is founded on the three core principles: host-state consent, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defense. The UN claims to stick by these principles, but at points throughout its tenure, each principle has been challenged. I would argue that the UN fundamentally fails to be impartial. Show More

The UN, as an organization, is inherently political. The Security Council, which controls its peacekeeping operations, consists of five permanent members, including China, France, Russia, the UK and the US (known as the P5), and ten rotating members. However, non-permanent members do not have access to the veto power, which has been criticized for giving deference to the politics of permanent members. There have been many calls for reform of the Security Council to reflect modern, to fix issues such as a lack of  permanent representatives from Africa, Latin America, or the Middle East, exclusion of global powers such as Germany, Japan and India, and the 50 UN member states that have not held a seat on the Security Council at all (CFR Staff 2020). Yet, reforms have failed to come to pass in the UN, and it remains a political body that favors the great powers that emerged from World War II. Thus, despite intentions of impartiality, partiality is written into the infrastructure of the organization itself.

In addition, its peacekeeping missions often inadvertently serve as a proponent for one side of the conflict or for an international policy that directly contradicts the ideology of a party involved in the conflict. This often makes the UN the target of extremists and has been the cause of tension between UN presence and host-states. In the Gaza strip, Israel has accused UN humanitarian forces of action in the interest of Hamas, and even conspiring to deliver weaponry (Bosco 2014). The impact of these tensions begins to affect the other two core principles of peacekeeping. Partiality often ends in damage to UN property or in the death of UN troops as states retaliate against troops which are not acting as a neutral party. Ultimately, the United Nations, as a political body, represents the ideas of its most powerful members, and thus, I hesitate to believe that the UN could ever be impartial. In the globalized world of the 21 st century, every party has an interest in the conflict, whether indirectly or directly, and that’s reflected in UN policy.

Consequently, UN partiality is part of a much larger picture of how it privileges Western ideology and principles over Oriental ideology and principles. Perhaps, the inability of the UN to be partial will inspire reform in the organization, as members are forced to understand how their systems of thought inherently benefit Western states. I certainly believe that if the UN is to be effective moving forward, its entire system of thought will need to be decolonized, or the organization needs to be torn down and completely restructured with a focus on equity.

Image courtesy of Tom Page, @2020, some rights reserved. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25912446

Bosco, David. 2014. “In Gaza and other war zones, how neutral is the United Nations?” The Washington Post , August 1, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-gaza-and-other-war-zones-how-neutral-is-the-united-nations/2014/08/01/1013a4d4-18c4-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html

CFR Staff. 2020. “The UN Security Council.” The Council on Foreign Relations , September 16, 2020. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/un-security-council

By Alexandra Imberh

Empowerment is the buzzword – as a woman in Western society I cannot escape its promising call: ‘Girl-boss’ mugs and ‘how to take control over your own life’ guides and ‘use your voice’ and ‘fight like Wonder Woman’ advertisements – but for what purpose? To conform to a standard of individual success purely measured in neo-liberal economic monetary terms? Are we changing the power relations of an oppressing patriarchy by selling soaps in our own shop on Etsy and donating money so that marginalized women in other parts of the world can learn how to make soaps, too? Show More

Maybe we are. But maybe we also have to think about how empowerment for us, for me, in an already very privileged position due to the colour of my skin, my upbringing as middle class of a very wealthy society is a very easy buzzword to use and the pretty label of ‘empowerment’ is readily available to apply to whatever initiative seems fit to reflect these values. I realize I already have the tools available to benefit from a liberal model of empowerment, but this model is very exclusionary. Having discussed this notion in class and reflecting on my own positionality, I find the use of ‘empowerment’ of women as a tool in addressing ongoing conflict and inequality highly problematic.

The main concerns highlighted by critical feminist and post-structuralist scholarship are these: the concept of empowerment as constructed in Western society for women in already privileged positions ignores structural oppression and obstacles, women individually are being blamed for their inability to raise up in society, and it excludes many groups of women. The intersectionality of race, gender and class, to name a few, is often not adequately addressed in empowerment initiatives. For example, conflict resolution approaches might include the need to empower marginalized women in less privileged societies towards peace and stability on the international level. Inherently, such approaches should be all about altering existing power dynamics to enable a marginalized people to make their own choices, increasing political agency and thereby improving livelihoods.

Instead, the term has been increasingly mis-used to promote a whole range of tools that might increase quality of life for individual women, but ultimately fail to address fundamental underlying power relations. In its inability to address marginalized women in anything other than economic (neo-liberal) terms, this approach rather enforces these power relations by suggesting that the purchase of a sewing machine or livestock will enable women to raise their voice. The wider socio-political issues remain unaddressed. 

Contemporary empowerment concepts rely on aid organizations instrumentalizing the popularity of the buzzword in our society, using shallow and simplified notions of empowerment to gain funding for solutions, that leave women with another household task to take care of instead of gaining political voice and mobility. It is crucial to ask who exactly benefits from this notion of empowerment, who uses it, and for what purpose. The same energy that goes into creating catchy empowerment advertising needs to go towards developing programs supporting policy changes, so women will not have to depend on being ‘empowered’ through donations of technicalities.

Cover art of Cronin-Furman et al. 2017. ‘Emissaries of Empowerment’, courtesy of Ana Puente Flores http://www.deviarchy.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/EMISSSARIES-OF-EMPOWERMENT-2017.pdf Accessed 26 October 2020

In recent years, the term and process of empowerment has become increasingly prevalent within the political sphere. The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines empowerment as “the granting of the power, right, or authority to perform various acts or duties”. Yet despite this broad description, when I think of what an ‘empowered individual’ looks like, very specific images come to mind. In my experience, those deigned ‘empowered’ are individuals who exemplify Western values, such as those who find financial success through capitalist pathways or those fighting for human rights, usually in a non-Western nation. Show More

The contradiction between these definitions begs for a deeper consideration into the image of empowerment and the groups which form and dictate this image. Looking at this term through a critical lens, it becomes evident that empowerment has been used as a tool of control by the West to promote liberal values and avoid altering existing power dynamics. 

The first way empowerment acts as a tool of control is through the conceptualization of the term itself. The discourse and image of empowerment was created by the West and endorses Western norms and standards. By creating the model of empowerment, Western authorities hold the ability to define who is empowered. Due to this monopoly, it is only through Western help or the adoption of this model that an individual can be empowered. The advancement of this mold serves not only to promote Western values but creates a binary which associates the West with empowerment and ‘the rest’ with oppression. From here, the West has the agency to ‘give power’ to individuals in the Global South/East without making any structural reforms. Instead, individuals are given microloans or the opportunity to attend a Western university, continuing to strengthen the association of the West with the positive ‘empowerment’ while doing nothing to alter the conditions which have put these individuals at a disadvantage in the first place. Even more problematic, many of the nations on the opposite of this binary face a structural disadvantage as a direct result of Western action, mainly through colonization. 

Second, this model effectively takes agency away from groups deemed to be in need of empowerment. To be ‘empowered’, one is rewritten into a Western centric narrative, asked to fit a specific image they had no part in cultivating. As a white, American woman, I cannot speak to this experience; however, Sidrah Ahmad-Chan has written eloquently about her experience as a Muslim woman living in the West. She explains that in order to be ‘empowered’, she must project a specific and narrow image of herself, which denies her the ability to show weakness or vulnerability (Ahmad-Chan, 2020). Here additional agency gained by ‘empowerment’ is taken away in order to keep this status. 

In evaluating empowerment, I do not mean to make an overarching claim about whether the process is good or bad, as I am sure that there are many who have benefited through Western empowerment. Instead, I assert that it is crucial to unpack and question this idea, for while ‘empowerment’ may bring opportunities to some, it limits the abilities of others, trapping them within a narrative they did not create.

Illustration by Cristina Spanò/New York Times (2017), accessed on 26 October 2020 at: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/05/opinion/the-myth-of-womens-empowerment.html .

Ahmad-Chan, S. (2020). ‘The Exhaustion of Empowerment’, This Magazine, 13 February [online]. Available at:

https://this.org/2020/02/13/the-exhaustion-of-empowerment/?fbclid=IwAR0rNc1J_FM8IyXhSghWd7eF8GB9J7QxXNQw8dzJfBjDi8ILWDb5ENr2u3Y .

Social media’s potentially leading role in peacebuilding’s ‘local turn’

Whilst traditional mass media’s role in peacekeeping has been substantially analyzed and possesses an array of empirical evidence; social media, as a relatively new technology, has largely been lacking any consideration in peace and conflict studies. Show More

I believe that social media can emerge as an effective tool in peacekeeping and transcend the obstacles encountered by traditional media. In fact, contrasting traditional ICTs’ one-way, detached sharing of information, social media is highly interactive, fostering dialogues among individuals. These benefits can prove to be beneficial in moving beyond liberal peacebuilding and turn social media into a central tool for bottom-up peacebuilding. 

A key critique of the liberal peace process is its tendency to omit the importance of social transformation in peacebuilding. Identifying mutual interests between individuals torn by conflict and restoring social cohesion should be a key strategy. A newfound social cohesion will ensure a sustainable peace among people and replace mistrust by tolerance and understanding. Here, I believe social media can come in. Social media can allow people from opposing sides to share their grievances, their stories and acknowledge a mutual suffering. It can create a new sense of digital community which can eventually be transcended beyond the screen. A recent example would for instance be Facebook groups such as ‘Jews and Arabs Refuse To be Enemies’ in which people share stories of Israeli Jews supporting the Palestinian cause, diffusing a message of peace. The interactive concept of Facebook through comments and likes allows disconnected groups to unite and initiate discussions. Nevertheless, often, such Facebook groups will attract people who already believe in peace and we should question its ability to reach beyond that.

Beyond promoting social cohesion, social media can emerge as an empowering tool, allowing marginalized groups’ voices to be heard. Marginalized communities are essentially ignored in top-down peacebuilding settings. The accessibility of social media can allow individuals to express their opinions, away from traditional media, often controlled by elites. Through this process, peacebuilding actors can be held accountable. Ushahidi, a blog created to help marginalized people report their complaints on issues of peace has given the voiceless a voice whilst also performing more politicized work mainly in accountability by for example monitoring the 2007 Kenyan elections. Ushahidi’s website states “We believe that if marginalized people are able to communicate to those who aim to serve them, then those organizations and government can more effectively respond to their communities’ immediate needs”. Social media is critical to strengthen self-empowerment, moving beyond the, in my opinion problematic, enforcement of agency by external actors and consequentially allow for a just peace that takes into consideration everyone’s needs rather than the needs of a few.

Despite the promising roles social media can play in peacebuilding, it is important to distance ourselves from a romanticization of its potential. It is not a solution to the systemic challenges peacebuilding faces, nor is it a perfect platform. A digital divide is still prominent in fragile states where the internet is often unreliable and hence, tends to reach only a small elite. Furthermore, high rates of illiteracy in conflict-affected states, mainly among women can undermine the empowering role of social media.

Nevertheless, accompanied by good governance structures, social media can alleviate peacebuilding to become more inclusive, legitimate, and just; characteristics lacking in most.

“UN Peacekeeping force in Southern Sudan” by Jason Patinkin

Editorial (2016). The Guardian view on UN peacekeeping: admirable aims but a troubled record. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/21/the-guardian-view-on-un-peacekeeping-admirable-aims-but-a-troubled-record [Accessed 26 October 2020]

By David Anderson

For many in the West, the dominant narrative is that the United Nations (UN) is a necessary vehicle for peace. Indeed, this was my own view until recently but here I challenge this naturalised position by asking whether the UN is really a peacemaker. Show More   Whilst some suggest that peace is the absence of direct violence, I contend that peace is a cooperative state whereby one is free from both indirect/structural violence and direct violence. This wider understanding of (positive) peace is more representative of what peace entails for individuals.

Significantly, the UN has a dubious success rate, with well-known failures in Rwanda, Haiti and Bosnia. Whilst many are quick to proclaim these operations as exceptions, it is not evident that they are. Even utilising a minimalist understanding of peace, there are many UN operations that, despite decades of intervention, fail to end violence, including in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In other states, such as Cyprus, the UN failed to resolve conflict despite a ceasefire, resulting in continual fear and uncertainty. This is not peace, but does demonstrate UN ineffectiveness. Moreover, even ‘successful’ operations where direct violence ends, structural violence often persists, as South Africa highlights. Therefore, utilising a positive peace definition, the UN again is an ineffective peacemaker, even in its ‘successful’ operations, challenging the notion it is necessary for peace. 

Partly, the UN’s failure as a peace mechanism is because of its ideological motivations. Undoubtedly, the UN is dominated by the Global North, especially in the Security Council. Resultantly, the UN is often driven by (neo)liberalism and acts as if all states would benefit from westernisation. As such, UN peace operations almost universally fail to focus on individual/non-state security and adhere to rigid processes that prevents localisation. This removal of the individual/local via the imposition of Western practices with no regard for local conceptions of peace/conflict resolution has significant similarities to colonial practices, suggesting that ignoring the local in UN peace operations replicates colonial power structures. The replication of such power structures causes the recreation and continuation of structural violence, demonstrating that the dominant ideology of the Global North prevents peace by enforcing structural violence. 

Moreover, the nature of the UN – as a collection of states – means that it has not, and will not, tackle structural injustices because powerful Global North states will not willingly allow any significant restructuring of the global system or redistribution of power. Resultantly, structural violence will continue because it benefits the Global North. Crucially, the UN lacks the power to attempt such change without Global North support, which demonstrates that the UN cannot resolve structural violence. Consequently, the UN evidently cannot create peace partly because its structure allows the Global North to dominate and prevent any distributive justice. 

Thus, the UN is unlikely to be a vehicle for world peace, despite dominant narratives. Its operations, historically and presently, have little success fostering positive peace. More significantly, the overwhelming dominance of Global North ideological approaches creates the perpetuation of colonial, and hence structural, violence. I further contend that structural violence itself is also unlikely to be resolved by the UN. 

Image Courtesy of the UN Photo Library/Stuart Price, depicting UN armoured vehicles on patrol in Sudan

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Essay on War and Peace

Students are often asked to write an essay on War and Peace in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on War and Peace

Understanding war and peace.

War and peace are two sides of the same coin, representing conflict and harmony respectively. War often arises from disagreements, leading to violence and destruction. On the other hand, peace symbolizes tranquility, unity, and cooperation.

The Impact of War

War can cause immense suffering and loss. It destroys homes, breaks families, and causes physical and emotional pain. Moreover, it can lead to economic instability and environmental damage, affecting future generations.

The Importance of Peace

Peace is essential for the well-being of individuals and societies. It fosters growth, prosperity, and happiness. Peace encourages dialogue, understanding, and mutual respect, helping to resolve conflicts peacefully.

250 Words Essay on War and Peace

Introduction.

War and peace, two contrasting states, have shaped human civilization, politics, and cultural identity. The dichotomy between these two conditions is not merely a matter of physical conflict or tranquility but extends to philosophical, psychological, and ethical dimensions.

War: A Double-Edged Sword

The necessity of peace.

Peace, on the other hand, is a state of harmony and cooperation, conducive to prosperity, growth, and human development. It fosters an environment where creativity, innovation, and collaboration can thrive. Peace is not merely the absence of war but also the presence of justice and equality, which are fundamental for sustainable development.

Striking a Balance

The challenge lies in striking a balance between the pursuit of peace and the inevitability of war. This balance is not about accepting war as a necessary evil, but about understanding its causes and working towards preventing them. Peacebuilding efforts should focus on addressing root causes of conflict, like inequality and injustice, and promoting dialogue, understanding, and cooperation.

In conclusion, the complex relationship between war and peace is a reflection of the human condition. Striving for peace while understanding the realities of war is a delicate but necessary balance we must achieve. It is through this equilibrium that we can hope to progress as a society, ensuring a better future for generations to come.

500 Words Essay on War and Peace

War and peace are two polar opposites, yet they are inextricably linked in the complex tapestry of human history. They represent the dual nature of humanity: our capacity for both destruction and harmony. This essay explores the intricate relationship between war and peace, the impacts they have on societies, and the philosophical perspectives that underpin both.

The Dualism of War and Peace

War and peace are not merely states of conflict and tranquility, but rather manifestations of human nature and societal structures. War, in its essence, is a reflection of our primal instincts for survival, dominance, and territoriality. It exposes the darker side of humanity, where violence and power struggles prevail. Conversely, peace symbolizes our capacity for cooperation, empathy, and mutual understanding. It showcases the brighter side of humanity, where dialogue and diplomacy reign.

Impacts of War and Peace

On the other hand, peace allows societies to flourish. It fosters economic growth, social development, and cultural exchange. Yet, peace is not merely the absence of war. It requires active effort to maintain social justice, equality, and mutual respect among diverse groups.

Philosophical Perspectives

War and peace have been subjects of philosophical debate for centuries. Realists argue that war is an inevitable part of human nature and international relations, while idealists contend that peace can be achieved through international cooperation and diplomacy.

In conclusion, war and peace are multifaceted concepts that reveal much about the human condition. Understanding their dynamics is crucial to shaping a world that leans towards peace, even as it acknowledges the realities of war. The challenge lies in mitigating the triggers of war and nurturing the conditions for peace. It is a task that requires not just political and diplomatic effort, but also a deep introspection into our collective values and aspirations.

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Peace and Conflict

Syllabus description

This unit focuses on what peace, conflict and violence mean, how conflicts emerge and develop, and what can be done to build a lasting peace.

Learning outcomes

Contested meanings of peace, conflict and violence

Causes and parties to conflict

Evolution of conflict

Conflict resolution and post-conflict transformation

Key concepts:

non-violence

Connections to theory

Questions of peace and conflict are central to global politics. Theories consider peace and conflict through different lenses, they may debate with other schools of thought or may examine specific aspects that their theory prioritises. The following are a few debates and questions:

Constructivists consider how ideas and threats are constructed, and examine how individuals and groups construct identities (e.g. 'us and them', the 'other'). A few topics:

How the media constructs the idea of a refugee and the impacts of these misconceptions

The role of language e.g. why battlefields are referred to as "theatres"? or the strategy of 'hearts and minds' in counter-terrorism. 

How politicians phrase apologies for historic war crimes  e.g. how Macron asked Rwanda for 'forgiveness'

How social media has changed civilian perceptions of threat e.g. QAnon

Feminists and analysts of gender politics question the ways conflict and conflict studies are gendered. Whilst, classical and traditional studies of peace and conflict focus primarily on male experiences, feminists ask the fundamental question 'where are the women?' A few topics:

How feminist foreign policy change a states' political decision-making

Why has gender-based violence in warfare been historically invisible? Is it still invisible?

How do men, women and LGBTQ+ communities experience conflict/ peace differently?

How does the changing construction of masculinity influence military norms and practices?

How can we build peace in communities with both victims and perpetrators of gender-based violence?

Liberalism considers whether war can be avoided, ideas include:

Democratic peace theory suggests democracies are less likely to go war with other democracies because, as Kant suggests, citizens are unlikely to give consent to entering wars

War can be avoided by international law and governance 

Liberal states are more stable internally and peaceful in their relationships with others e.g. Francis Fukuyama

Global trade and economic agreements reduce the possibility of conflict

What will it take to resolve the long-simmering conflict in Cyprus?

A refugee man stands in front of tent at a camp inside the U.N controlled buffer zone that divide the north part of the Turkish occupied area from the south Greek Cypriots at Aglantzia area in the divided capital Nicosia, Cyprus, on Aug, 9. Petros Karadjias/The Associated Press

Robert Rotberg is the founding director of the Harvard Kennedy School’s program on intrastate conflict, a former senior fellow at CIGI and president emeritus of the World Peace Foundation.

One of the globe’s longest-running conflicts between different peoples is quietly simmering on the strategically situated eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus. Turkey invaded the former British Crown colony 50 years ago this past July, and about 25,000 Turkish soldiers are still garrisoned in the northern part of the island, with little to do except to (mostly symbolically) protect the self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of North Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognized as such only by Turkey.

That country controls about one-third of the island’s territory and counts about 383,000 predominantly Turkish-speaking Cypriots as its citizens. The remainder of the island – the Republic of Cyprus – is populated by 1.4 million Greek-speaking Cypriots. It joined the European Union in 2004 without the participation of the Turkish Cypriots.

A United Nations peacekeeping force has occupied and maintained a demilitarized zone between the two republics ever since the Turkish invasion. But since about 2002, relations between North and South Cyprus have largely been peaceful, with only very rare minor outbreaks of hostility.

Cyprus has become a supremely divided island where there is no war and a surprising degree of harmony despite the bitter and irreconcilable political differences between the separated sections of the whole. Since 2002, too, movement across the demilitarized green line has been routine and relatively seamless, requiring just a quick checking of passports. North Cypriots regularly pass, for example, from the northern parts of Nicosia, the still bifurcated capital city, to work in the south. Tourists cross the green line with just as much ease.

Yet, political expectations and determinations are starkly divergent, with both republics having long hewed to future dispensations for themselves that have defied generations of UN negotiators.

South Cyprus claims the entire island as its sovereign right. When the Turks invaded to prevent their fellow Turkish speakers from becoming subjects of a military regime under Greek officers who had ousted the president of what was then a united island, they saved Turkish speakers from being killed and persecuted. Many Turks moved north from exposed positions in the south and west.

But after the Greek-speaking officers who had pursued union with Greece were finally subdued by British intervention, South Cyprus resumed its post-colonial status as the presumed hegemon over the entire island, not just the South. By then Turkey had established a separate entity which, in 1983, declared itself a republic.

Several negotiating teams at the beginning of this century almost managed to persuade North and South to come together, but as a federation with two independent component republics. After several years of assiduous parleying between the two sides, the UN federal plan was put to a vote. Concessions made by the UN to the North resulted in an unexpected majority in favour there, but the concessions upset the South; its citizens voted robustly against the plan.

Cyprus would be a much stronger player in Europe and in the world if both sides of the island operated together as part of a polity that ruled the whole island, but with each component controlling its domestic affairs – education, agriculture, health, tourism – with federal Cyprus, which lies 840 kilometres from Syria and Lebanon and 420 kilometres from Israel, focusing on security, money laundering, banking integrity and corruption, especially since Russian oligarchs and Putin allies use Cyprus to evade sanctions. There are petroleum deposits offshore, too, the exploitation of which could benefit both sides.

Despite a potential petroleum bonanza and hardly any fundamental lifestyle differences between the two sides, there is almost no chance that the frozen Cyprus conflict will be resolved soon – and maybe ever. The North wants the South to accept the fact that it exists and will not go away – and it will demand half of any oil produced offshore. Turkey naturally backs the TRNC; its leaders make frequent visits to North Cyprus to emphasize this.

Whenever negotiators try to unfreeze Cyprus’s disunion, the South reiterates that it will never retreat from its sovereign claims to the entire island. The Turks should not have invaded, they insist, and they see North Cyprus as an illegal usurping secessionist entity.

And so, ingenious attempts to bring the two sides into different forms of federation have never overcome these firm beliefs around the island’s jurisdiction. Likewise, since there is nothing more than harsh words between the two sides now, and no warfare, there is little urgency, especially on the island, to find a workable way to bring Turkish- and Greek-speakers together into a federation. The long-simmering conflict will stay off the boil.

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