essay vs report

• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Essay and Report

On the other hand, an essay can be understood as a piece of writing, on a specific topic or subject, which expresses the author’s own ideas and knowledge about the subject.

The basic difference between essay and report is that while an essay is argumentative and idea-based, reports are informative and fact-based. Now, let us move further to understand some more points of differences.

Content: Essay Vs Report

Comparison chart.

Definition of Essay

An essay can be understood as a comprehensive literary composition, written in a narrative style and presents a particular topic, supports an argument and highlights the writer’s view or ideology. An essay is used to check a person’s outlook and understanding on specific matters and also his/her ability to describe and argue in a way which convinces the reader or informs him/her about a specific topic.

One can make use of learned materials, along with his/her own research, to write an essay effectively. It includes both narrative and subjective thoughts. Further, an essay supports a single idea at a time, for which several components need to be covered in it so as to appear logical and chronological.

It can be a learned argument, observation of day to day life, literary criticism, political manifestos, recollections, and reflections of the writer. It starts with a question and attempts to answer or give suggestions to the problem, on the basis of the existing theories or the writer’s personal opinion and assessment.

While writing an essay, it must be kept in mind that the approach used by the writer should be positive, even if the topic of argument is negative.

Definition of Report

The report implies a well structured factual document which is created and presented after conducting an independent enquiry, research or investigation on a specific subject. It serves as a basis for problem-solving and decision making.

Reports are prepared for a definite purpose and contain relevant information in a proper format, for a particular audience. It is used to identify, observe and analyse the issues, events, findings, that occurred practically, i.e. in real life.

A report is designed with the aim of informing the reader about the event, situation or issue, in a very simple and objective manner, while enabling them to get the desired information quickly and easily. It provides recommendations for future actions. Information collected from research, or from carrying out a project work is presented in a clear and concise manner, under a set of headings and subheadings, that helps the reader to get the desired information quickly and easily.

Characteristics of an Ideal Report

• It must be clear and concise.
• It is written in easy language which the readers can understand easily.
• It has to be appropriate and accurate.
• It should be well drafted and organised, with specific sections, headings and sub-headings.

A report summary can be provided orally, however detailed reports are usually in the form of written documents. It contains – Title Page, Acknowledgement, Authorization Letter, Table of Contents, Executive Summary, Introduction, Discussion, Results, Conclusion, Recommendations and References.

Moreover, Cover letter, Copyright notice, Bibliography, Glossary and Appendices may also form part of a report.

Key Differences Between Essay and Report

The difference Between report and essay is discussed here in detail:

• An essay is a brief literary composition, which is used to describe, present, argue, and analyse the idea or topic. Conversely, a report is a formal and concise document consisting of findings from the practical research. It aims at investigating and exploring the problem under study.
• An essay is written on the basis of subjective analysis of theories and past research, by other people and own ideas, on the concerned subject. As against, a report is objective and factual, which is based on past research, as well as present data and findings.
• An essay talks about general facts and events along with the writer’s personal ideas and views, on the topic in a non-fictional manner. On the contrary, a report contains information which the reader can use to identify the facts or support in decision making or solving issues if any.
• When it comes to sections, a report usually contains different sections, with catchy headings which may attract the attention of the audience. As against, an essay does not have any section, its flow is continuous. However, it is divided into cohesive paragraphs.
• A report uses tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, statistics and many more for a clear and better presentation of the information. But, in the case of essays, they are not used.
• The conclusion in an essay is based on the writer’s personal opinion and views on the topic itself which must be optimistic, and it does not provide any recommendations for future actions. On the other hand, a report gives an independent conclusion, but it may contain the opinion of the experts or previous researchers and recommendations are included, about how the research can be improved and extended.

In a nutshell, Essays are descriptive, subjective and evaluative, whereas, a report is descriptive, objective and analytical. Essays are mainly used in an academic context, whereas reports are preferred in the field of research.

The report is used to present the researched information in a written format, to the audience. Conversely, essays are used to identify what the writer knows about the topic and how well the writer understand the question.

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Anna H. Smith says

November 26, 2020 at 3:22 pm

Thank you for explaining this so eloquently. Excellent post, I will keep this handy and refer to it often from now on, the information is so clear and so insightful, thanks for giving a clear difference. It’s a very educative article.!

Presley Dube says

November 20, 2021 at 3:43 pm

very useful to me thank you.

Leonard says

August 8, 2022 at 2:52 pm

Thanks for sharing such nice information about this topic.

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March 20, 2023 at 10:39 pm

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Reports and essays: key differences

Know what to expect

Explore the main differences between reports and essays and how to write for your assignments

You'll complete assignments with different requirements throughout your degree, so it's important to understand what you need to do for each of them. Here we explore the key differences between reports and essays. 

This page describes general features of academic reports and essays. Depending on your subject you may use all of these features, a selection of them, or you may have additional requirements. 

There is no single right way to write a report or essay, but they are different assignments. At a glance: 

• Reports depend heavily on your subject and the type of report.
• Essays usually have specific content and a planned structure with a focus on sense and flow. You subject might need different types of information in your introduction –  some disciplines include a short background and context here, while others begin their discussion, discuss their resources or briefly signpost the topic.

Differences between reports and essays

This table compares reports and essays and provides an outline of the standard structure for each. Your assignment will also depend on your discipline, the purpose of your work, and your audience – so you should check what you need to do in your course and module handbooks, instructions from your lecturer, and your subject conventions.

Table adapted from Cottrell, 2003, p. 209.

The structure of reports

Most reports use an IMRaD structure: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion.

Below are some common sections that also appear in reports. Some sections include alternative headings.

1. Table of contents

Your contents shows the number of each report section, its title, page number and any sub-sections. Sub-section numbers and details start under the section title, not the margin or the number.

2. Abstract or Executive summary

This brief summary of the report is usually the last thing you write.

3. Introduction

Your introduction describes the purpose of the report, explains why it necessary or useful, and sets out its precise aims and objectives.

4. Literature review

This describes current research and thinking about the problem or research question, and is often incorporated into the introduction.

5. Methods or Methodology

This describes and justifies the methods or processes used to collect your data.

6. Results or Findings

This section presents the results (or processed data) from the research and may consist of mainly tables, charts and or diagrams.

7. Discussion, or Analysis, or Interpretation

This section analyses the results and evaluates the research carried out.

8. Conclusion

The conclusion summarises the report and usually revisits the aims and objectives.

9. Recommendations

In this section the writer uses the results and conclusions from the report to make practical suggestions about a problem or issue. This may not be required.

10. Appendices

You can include raw data or materials that your report refers to in the appendix, if you need to. The data is often presented as charts, diagrams and tables. Each item should be numbered : for example, write Table 1 and its title; Table 2 and its title, and so on as needed.

Structure of essays

Introduction.

Your essay introduction contextualises and gives background information about the topic or questions being discussed, and sets out what the essay is going to cover.

Your essay body is divided into paragraphs. These paragraphs help make a continuous, flowing text.

The conclusion summarises the main points made in the essay. Avoid introducing new information in your conclusion.

Bibliography or Reference list

This is a list of the resources you've used in your essay. This is usually presented alphabetically by authors’ surname.

Reference for the Table of Distinctions above: 

Cottrell, S. (2003).  The Study Skills Handbook  (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Download our report and essay differences revision sheet

Download this page as a PDF for your report and essay revision notes.

Key features of academic reports

Basic essay structure

Writing clear sentences

Essay vs Report: Choosing the Right One To Use

A comparison between essays and reports reveals the distinct characteristics of each form of writing. Essays and reports are both common assignments in academic settings, but they serve different purposes and have unique structures. Understanding the differences between these two types of writing is essential for students to excel in their academic endeavors.

In simple terms, an essay is a piece of writing that presents and defends a writer’s point of view on a particular topic. On the other hand, a report is a structured document that provides information about a specific issue, often including data and analysis. While essays are more subjective and focus on the writer’s opinions and arguments, reports are more objective and rely on facts and evidence.

Throughout this article, we will explore the key distinctions between essays and reports, including their purposes, structures, and writing styles. By gaining a deeper understanding of these differences, readers will be better equipped to approach their writing assignments with clarity and confidence.

The Definitions

Define Essay:

An essay is a written composition that presents and defends a particular viewpoint, argument, or interpretation. It is typically shorter in length than a report and focuses on a specific topic or idea. Essays are often used in academic settings to demonstrate critical thinking skills, analysis, and research abilities.

Define Report:

A report is a formal document that provides information about a specific topic, issue, or event. Reports are typically longer and more detailed than essays and are often used in professional or business settings to communicate findings, recommendations, or data analysis. Reports may include tables, charts, and graphs to support the information presented.

How To Properly Use The Words In A Sentence

Understanding the distinction between the terms “essay” and “report” is crucial for effective communication. Let’s delve into how to properly use these words in a sentence.

How To Use Essay In A Sentence

An essay is a piece of writing that presents a writer’s perspective on a particular topic. When using the word “essay” in a sentence, it is important to consider the context in which it is being used. Here are some examples:

• She spent hours crafting an insightful essay on the impact of technology on society.
• The student’s essay on climate change was well-researched and thought-provoking.
• His essay eloquently argued for the importance of education in shaping future generations.

How To Use Report In A Sentence

A report, on the other hand, is a detailed account of an event, situation, or investigation. When incorporating the word “report” into a sentence, it is essential to convey the purpose and content of the report accurately. Consider the following examples:

• The investigative journalist published a groundbreaking report on government corruption.
• The annual financial report highlighted the company’s performance over the past year.
• She submitted a comprehensive report outlining the findings of her research project.

More Examples Of Essay & Report Used In Sentences

Brief Section Introduction: Explore how the terms “essay” and “report” are used in various contexts through examples in sentences.

Examples Of Using Essay In A Sentence

• She spent hours meticulously crafting her essay on the impact of climate change.
• The professor assigned a challenging essay on the history of ancient civilizations.
• His essay eloquently argued for the importance of art education in schools.
• The student’s essay showcased a deep understanding of the novel’s themes.
• Writing an essay requires critical thinking and effective communication skills.

Examples Of Using Report In A Sentence

• The scientist presented a detailed report on the results of her research study.
• After investigating the issue, she submitted a comprehensive report to her supervisor.
• The annual report highlighted the company’s financial performance over the past year.
• The journalist wrote a gripping report on the humanitarian crisis unfolding in the region.
• His report outlined the steps needed to improve efficiency in the workplace.

Common Mistakes To Avoid

When it comes to academic writing, it is crucial to understand the distinction between an essay and a report. Unfortunately, many individuals often use these terms interchangeably, leading to confusion and inaccuracies in their work. Below are some common mistakes to avoid when differentiating between an essay and a report:

1. Lack Of Structure

One of the most common mistakes is the lack of understanding of the structural differences between an essay and a report. An essay typically follows a more fluid structure, with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. On the other hand, a report is more structured and often includes sections such as an executive summary, introduction, methodology, results, and conclusion. Failing to adhere to the appropriate structure can lead to a disorganized and unclear piece of writing.

2. Failure To Address The Purpose

Another mistake is the failure to address the specific purpose of the writing. An essay is typically more subjective and aims to express the author’s opinion or argument on a particular topic. In contrast, a report is more objective and focuses on presenting factual information or findings. Mixing up the purposes of an essay and a report can result in a lack of clarity and coherence in the writing.

3. Inappropriate Tone And Style

Using an inappropriate tone and style is another common mistake when differentiating between an essay and a report. An essay allows for a more creative and expressive tone, while a report requires a more formal and objective tone. Failing to match the tone and style to the type of writing can affect the credibility and effectiveness of the piece.

4. Neglecting Citations And References

Citations and references are essential components of both essays and reports, but they are often neglected or misused. In an essay, proper citations are crucial to support the author’s arguments and provide credibility to the work. In a report, accurate references are necessary to acknowledge sources and maintain the integrity of the information presented. Failing to include citations and references can result in accusations of plagiarism or lack of academic rigor.

By avoiding these common mistakes and understanding the distinctions between an essay and a report, writers can produce more accurate and effective academic writing.

Context Matters

When deciding between writing an essay or a report, it is crucial to consider the context in which these types of documents will be used. The choice between an essay and a report can significantly depend on the purpose, audience, and expectations of the reader.

Examples Of Different Contexts

1. Academic Setting:

In an academic setting, the choice between an essay and a report can vary based on the assignment requirements. For example, if a student is asked to analyze a specific topic in depth and present their arguments and findings, an essay might be more suitable. On the other hand, if the assignment requires the student to investigate a topic and provide a detailed overview of the research, a report would be more appropriate.

2. Business Environment:

When writing for a business audience, the choice between an essay and a report can be influenced by the purpose of the document. For instance, if a company needs to present a detailed analysis of market trends and make recommendations for future strategies, a report would be the preferred format. However, if the goal is to persuade stakeholders or clients with a persuasive argument, an essay might be more effective.

Exceptions To The Rules

While the guidelines for distinguishing between an essay and a report are generally clear-cut, there are a few exceptions where the traditional rules may not apply. In these cases, it is important to understand the context and purpose of the writing to determine the appropriate classification.

1. Creative Writing Assignments

One key exception to the essay vs report debate is in the realm of creative writing assignments. In this scenario, the focus is on expressing ideas and emotions in a unique and artistic way, rather than presenting factual information or analysis. While essays typically follow a structured format with clear arguments and evidence, creative writing pieces may blur the lines between the two categories.

For example, a personal narrative that tells a story from the author’s perspective may contain elements of both an essay and a report. The writer may incorporate descriptive language and expressive techniques to engage the reader, while also conveying a message or theme.

2. Hybrid Assignments

Another exception arises with hybrid assignments that combine elements of both essays and reports. These assignments may require students to analyze a topic, present arguments, and provide evidence, while also incorporating personal reflections or creative elements.

For instance, a research paper that includes a reflective component where the author discusses their personal experiences or insights related to the topic blurs the lines between a traditional essay and a report. In this case, the assignment may not neatly fit into either category, making it an exception to the standard rules.

3. Multimedia Presentations

In today’s digital age, multimedia presentations have become increasingly popular as a means of conveying information and ideas. These presentations often combine visual elements, audio clips, and interactive features to engage the audience and enhance the overall message.

While multimedia presentations may contain elements of both essays and reports, they represent a unique exception to the traditional rules. The incorporation of multimedia elements allows for a more dynamic and interactive presentation of information, blurring the lines between written and visual communication.

After delving into the distinctions between essays and reports, it is evident that each serves a unique purpose in academic and professional settings. Essays are typically more subjective and creative, aiming to persuade or inform the reader on a specific topic. On the other hand, reports are more objective and factual, focusing on presenting data and analysis in a structured format.

Understanding the differences between essays and reports is crucial for students and professionals alike, as it influences the way information is presented and the intended audience. While essays allow for more personal expression and creativity, reports require a systematic approach and adherence to specific guidelines. By recognizing the distinct characteristics of each, individuals can effectively communicate their ideas and findings in the most appropriate format.

R.J. is the new owner of GrammarBeast.com. Having worked in bookstores, libraries, and more, his passion for grammar and writing are pivotal. As a ghostwriter for books that have sold tens of thousands of copies, he wants to help others find the right words and understand the differences.

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Essay vs Report: What Are the Key Differences?

(Last updated: 5 April 2024)

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Reports and essays serve as fundamental forms of scholarly communication, each with its distinct purpose, structure, and style. While both convey information and analysis, they vary in their objectives, audience, and presentation. In this comprehensive guide, we'll explore the different nuances between reports and essays, unpacking their key characteristics and offering insights into when and how to utilise each form effectively.

Reports: Capturing Data and Analysis

Reports are structured documents designed to convey factual information, findings, and analysis on a specific topic or issue. They are commonly used in academic, professional, and scientific contexts to present research outcomes, project evaluations, or business insights. Key features of reports include:

• Objective Presentation : Reports aim to provide an objective overview of data, observations, and analysis without personal interpretation or opinion.
• Structured Format : Reports typically follow a structured format, including sections such as introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions.
• Visual Aids : Reports often incorporate tables, charts, graphs, and other visual aids to enhance the presentation of data and facilitate understanding.
• Audience Focus : Reports are usually intended for a specific audience, such as academic peers, business stakeholders, or policymakers, who require concise and actionable information.

Essays: Exploring Ideas and Arguments

Essays, on the other hand, are scholarly compositions that explore and analyse ideas, arguments, and theories within a particular subject area. They provide opportunities for critical thinking, reflection, and interpretation of course material or research findings. Key features of essays include:

• Thesis-driven Structure : Essays typically present a central thesis or argument, supported by evidence, analysis, and interpretation.
• Logical Progression : Essays follow a logical progression of ideas, with clear transitions between paragraphs and sections to guide the reader through the argument.
• Engagement with Sources : Essays engage with a range of scholarly sources, including academic articles, books, and primary documents, to support the argument and provide context.
• Critical Analysis : Essays encourage critical analysis and evaluation of ideas, theories, and evidence, often requiring students to synthesise information and draw their conclusions.

Key Differences: Report vs Essay

While both reports and essays involve research, analysis, and communication of ideas, there are key differences in their purpose, structure, and approach:

Purpose : Reports aim to present factual information and analysis to inform decision-making, while essays explore ideas, theories, and arguments to provoke thought and discussion.

Structure : Reports follow a structured format with clear sections, while essays offer more flexibility in organisation and presentation.

Language and Style : Reports use formal, concise language and avoid personal opinions, while essays may incorporate personal voice, reflections, and interpretations.

Audience : Reports are often written for a specific audience, such as stakeholders or decision-makers, while essays are typically written for academic audiences or peers.

Choosing the Right Format

The choice between a report and an essay depends on the nature of the assignment, the requirements of the task, and the expectations of the audience. Consider the following factors when determining which format to use:

Purpose : Clarify the purpose of the document—is it to present factual information (report) or to explore and analyse ideas (essay)?

Audience : Consider the intended audience and their expectations regarding format, style, and depth of analysis.

Scope and Depth : Assess the scope and depth of the topic—are you presenting data and findings (report) or engaging in critical analysis and interpretation (essay)?

Instructions : Review the assignment instructions carefully to determine whether a specific format is required and to understand the evaluation criteria.

Leveraging the Power of Structure and Style

Reports and essays are valuable tools for scholarly communication, each offering unique opportunities for knowledge dissemination and intellectual exploration. By understanding the differences between reports and essays and knowing when to employ each format, students and researchers can effectively convey information, analyse ideas, and engage with academic discourse. Whether crafting a data-driven report or crafting a compelling essay, mastering the nuances of structure and style is essential for academic success.

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• Reports vs essays

Students are sometimes unclear about different genres of assessment tasks.

Students often ask the question "What is the difference between a report and an essay?" This short video explains what a report is in academic writing, how it is used in different situations, and the structure of a report including executive summary, introduction, findings and conclusion.

What is a report?

A report is a piece of writing that tells you about some experience, event, or situation. This could include just doing research on some topic, a practical experiment, some issue that has arisen in a company/organisation, or a system, or even a piece of equipment, maybe.

Reports are often problem-based, but not always. It describes what you have found out, and it goes deeper - it explains and analyses what you have found out. Reports are very structured and there is an expected format. They always have sections and headings.

Have a look at this report outline:

“The aim of this report was to investigate Unilab staff attitudes to the use of mobile phones in staff and team meetings. A staff survey and policies on mobile phone use from a number of similar companies were analysed. There was significant support for a clear company policy on mobile phone use, including their banning in certain situations. The results of this research reflected the findings from similar studies. The report concluded that personal mobile phones should not be turned on during all staff meeting times.”

Most reports have executive summaries. In some disciplines, we call it an “abstract”. They are not the same as the introduction. An executive summary summarises the whole report. That means that there will be a sentence or two representing each section of the report. You always write it after you have completed the full report. Have a look at how the writer summarises each main section in one sentence (refer to executive summary above). As you can see, it’s got a very definite structure drawn from the larger report. It is very different to the introduction which just talks about the broad context, the purpose of the report, and what is going to be covered in the following sections. It gives the reader an idea of what is ahead – it does not give the overview like the executive summary.

The other important sections are the Findings and Discussion. This is where you would describe and then analyse your findings. Your findings will be reporting what you have discovered during your research, or your experiment, or an observation you have made. In the discussion section, you must delve deeper: you have to analyse and make sense of these findings and not just state what they are.

Finally, in the conclusion, you summarise your findings or use your findings or to come out with a more unified understanding or outcome. In some disciplines like business, you might be asked to give solutions or recommendations to overcome a problem that you have noticed. Recommendations might have their own section or be included in the conclusion, too.

For more information about reports, try the tutorials. Thanks for watching!

The table below shows the main differences between reports and essays.

• Provides objective information: Can be constructed collaboratively.
• Highly structured into sections identified using headings.
• Sections can be read in isolation of the most of the text: the reader can dip in and out.
• Objective report and analysis of facts.
• Grounded in practice but often links to theory.
• For a specific audience.
• Includes tables, graphs and diagrams.
• Dot points used for conciseness.
• Presents a particular writer's claim or argument.
• Structured by paragraphing with key points identified in topic sentences.
• Paragraphs are read in the context of the whole: the reader starts at the beginning and reads the entire text.
• Subjective argument or interpretation.
• Grounded in theory but sometimes linked to practice.
• For a generalised audience.
• Meaning is conveyed through text.
• Meaning constructed through sentences.
• Purpose of reports and sources to use
• Overall structure of a report
• Sample report structures

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Essay vs. Report

What's the difference.

Essays and reports are both forms of academic writing that serve different purposes. An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument or a point of view on a specific topic. It is typically more subjective and allows the writer to express their thoughts and opinions. On the other hand, a report is a structured document that provides information on a particular subject. It is usually more objective and focuses on presenting facts and findings. While both essays and reports require research and analysis, essays tend to be more flexible in terms of structure and content, while reports follow a more rigid format with headings and subheadings.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When it comes to academic writing, two common forms that students often encounter are essays and reports. While both serve the purpose of conveying information, they have distinct characteristics that set them apart. In this article, we will explore the attributes of essays and reports, highlighting their differences and similarities.

One of the primary distinctions between essays and reports lies in their structure. Essays typically follow a more flexible structure, allowing for a greater degree of creativity and personal expression. They often consist of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The body paragraphs present arguments or ideas supported by evidence and analysis.

On the other hand, reports tend to have a more rigid structure. They usually include sections such as an introduction, methodology, findings, and conclusion. Reports are often written in a more objective and formal tone, focusing on presenting factual information rather than personal opinions.

Furthermore, essays often require a thesis statement, which serves as the central argument or main idea of the paper. Reports, on the other hand, may not necessarily have a thesis statement but instead focus on presenting data or findings in a clear and organized manner.

While both essays and reports aim to convey information, they have different purposes. Essays are commonly used to explore and analyze a topic, allowing the writer to present their own ideas and arguments. They often require critical thinking and the ability to construct a coherent and persuasive argument.

Reports, on the other hand, are typically used to present factual information or findings from research or investigations. They are often more objective in nature and focus on providing a comprehensive overview of a particular subject. Reports may be used to inform decision-making, document experiments, or present research findings to a wider audience.

Language and Style

The language and style used in essays and reports also differ. Essays often allow for a more personal and subjective writing style, where the writer can express their thoughts and opinions. The language used in essays can be more creative and engaging, with the use of rhetorical devices and persuasive techniques to captivate the reader.

Reports, on the other hand, require a more formal and objective writing style. The language used in reports is typically straightforward and concise, focusing on presenting information in a clear and logical manner. Reports often avoid the use of personal pronouns and instead rely on passive voice constructions to maintain an objective tone.

Research and Referencing

Both essays and reports may require research and referencing, but the extent and approach can vary. Essays often involve extensive research to support the writer's arguments or claims. They may require the use of various sources, such as books, scholarly articles, or online resources. Referencing in essays is crucial to acknowledge the sources used and provide credibility to the arguments presented.

Reports, on the other hand, may also require research, but the focus is often on presenting factual information rather than analyzing or interpreting it. Reports may rely more heavily on primary research, such as surveys or experiments, to gather data. Referencing in reports is essential to provide transparency and allow readers to access the sources of the presented information.

In conclusion, while essays and reports share the goal of conveying information, they have distinct attributes that set them apart. Essays offer more flexibility in structure and allow for personal expression, while reports follow a more rigid structure and focus on presenting factual information. The purpose, language, and style used in essays and reports also differ, with essays often being more subjective and persuasive, while reports maintain a formal and objective tone. Understanding the differences between essays and reports is crucial for students to excel in their academic writing and effectively communicate their ideas and findings.

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What is the Difference Between Essays and Reports?

Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 19th, 2021 , Revised On August 23, 2023

What is the difference between essays and reports? Report writing is a specialised skill that your academic tutor would like you to develop.

Whether you are writing a report in university or business, report writing skills are equally important to get your message across to the readers effectively.

Generally, your academic tutor decides what form of writing you must undertake and will provide the layout requirements in the assignment brief.

However, as you move towards university-level study, you will have the freedom of choice to decide what form of writing you must undertake to address the problem question .

This means that you will need a critical evaluation of what form of writing will be the most appropriate for you, considering a given academic assignment’s requirements.

Whether you are a student or a professional, it is important to understand the key differences between an  essay and a report to work out why you should prefer one form of writing over the other.

This article lists the most notable differences between a report and an essay, so whenever you are unsure about which form of writing is the most suitable, you will know exactly what decision is right or wrong.

Difference Between Essays and Reports – Purpose

Purpose of a report.

Typically you will be  asked to write a report  if you must present an  analysis of practical research results. All reports start with the topic background, research aim, and objectives to provide details of what your work will examine.

You may also include a  hypothesis  in your report if you are testing a proposition with your research. Depending on your topic’s nature and the report writing guidelines laid out by your tutor, you may also have to include a separate section for future recommendations in your report.

Purpose of an Essay

On the other hand, Essays find answers to a question using the researcher’s own critical evaluation of the existing theories. An essay does not directly include any practical research because it only uses the existing literature material.

Difference Between Essays and Reports – Content

The report starts with introducing the topic and lists the aim and objectives your practical research will address.

It quickly moves to report chronological actions such as gathering data and presenting findings from primary research activities and laboratory experiments before the writer finally provides an assessment of the results in the conclusion  and recommendations for future sections.

The  content of an essay  depends on the  essay question  you need to answer. Whether your essay must be evaluative,  argumentative ,  narrative , discursive, or descriptive  will be determined by the nature of your essay question.

However, in general, all essays involve a synthesis of knowledge obtained from existing literature on the given question and the writer’s personal arguments and opinions based on the evidence collected during research.

Whether you have been asked to write an essay or a report, ResearchProspect writers can help you achieve the highest academic grade. We have a large team of academic writers who can meet every bit of your requirements regardless of your academic level and the academic subject.

Difference Between Essays and Reports – Formatting

A report and an essay format are similar as both include an  introduction ,  main body , and  conclusion sections. Reports include methodology and analysis in the main body and have a fixed structure.

It is recommended to check your school’s formatting guidelines if you are unsure how to format your report. Further, you can get our professional report writing service that will help you achieve your desired grades.

If you are writing an essay, the essay question’s critical evaluation will determine the  structure you must follow in your essay.

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Difference Between Essays and Reports in a Table

Despite describing these differences, it may not be easy to distinguish between an essay and a report. For example , in some academic disciplines, essays are structured like reports, with headings separating the different parts of an essay. The best practice regarding the style and format suitable to your academic discipline would be to consult your academic tutor.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How do you differentiate between an essay or a report.

An essay is a concise piece of writing that presents an argument, opinion, or analysis with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. A report is a structured document that conveys information, often including data, findings, and recommendations, typically with headings, sections, and sometimes visual aids.

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In this article, we are sharing multiple patterns of template for essays along with some useful tips to make the structure of your essay strong and clear.

Not sure about how to organize an essay? This article is designed to provide a brief yet compact view to master the skill of organization of essay.

The paragraphs in the main body of an essay is where you develop the central argument. Here is all you need to know about how to write paragraph for essay.

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Report Writing: Differences between reports and essays

• What's in this guide
• Elements of a report

Differences between reports and essays

• Steps to writing a report

What is a report? 

The main purpose for a report is to be informative. .

• The biggest difference between reports and essays is the structure used
• An essay is usually written in continuous text, but a report is broken into sections
• Essays discuss ideas, but reports present the information that is available on a subject
• The purpose of an essay is to make a convincing argument for a position, or discuss opinions, but a report outlines facts and figures and may give recommendations.

A report has:

1.  Defined structure:  information is organised under headings

2.  Independent sections: a report contains stand-alone sections, to which a reader can refer selectively

3.  Unbiased conclusions:  reports are written objectively

For some subjects, you may have a more specific report structure, such as a lab report, or a business report.  Most reports follow a section and sub-section structure.  The challenge is to arrange the information in a way that is easy to follow. 

Your report will have a specific purpose and audience, which will influence how you arrange the information to communicate clearly.  Read carefully through your assessment question to make sure you are following the expected structure, including the right content, and incorporating the right sections. 

Acknowledgements

The information in this guide has been adapted (with permission) from the University of Newcastle Library guide to report writing

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Differences between reports and essays

A report is a piece of informative writing that describes a set of actions and analyses any results in response to a specific brief. A quick definition might be: “This is what I did and this is what it means.”

You may also have assignments which are not called reports but which are still pieces of informative writing; for instance, some dissertations and project write-ups fall into this category.

A good way to understand the key features of reports is to see how they differ from essays as a type of academic writing.

Core Differences

We Provide Comparison for All Terms

10 Difference between Essay and Report (With Table)

What is the main difference between essay and report? An essay pertains to a literary technique wherein nearly all aspects of a subject are thoroughly explored or articulated. A report serve as the documentation and comprehensive analysis of the discoveries and suggestions derived from practical research.

In the realm of academic writing, students frequently come across two prevalent types of assignments: essays and reports. While these assignments share certain resemblances, they also possess marked distinctions.

This piece aims to delve into the contrasting characteristics of essays and reports, with a particular emphasis on their objectives, structures, and writing approaches.

Difference between Essay and Report with Table

What Is Essay?

An essay is a written composition that presents a focused and organized discussion or exploration of a particular topic, idea, or argument. Essays are a common form of academic, literary, and creative writing and are characterized by several key features:

Thesis Statement : An essay typically begins with a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or purpose of the essay.

Structure : Essays follow a specific structure, including an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. This structure allows for the logical presentation of ideas and arguments.

Supporting Evidence : Arguments and claims in an essay are supported by evidence, which may include examples, data, quotes, or references to authoritative sources.

Coherence : Essays are expected to be coherent, with ideas flowing logically from one point to the next. Transitions and topic sentences help maintain this coherence.

Analysis : Essays often involve critical thinking and analysis, where the writer evaluates, interprets, or critiques the topic or subject matter.

Clarity and Conciseness : Effective essays are clear, concise, and free from unnecessary jargon or verbosity. They communicate ideas effectively to the intended audience.

Variety of Types : Essays come in various forms, such as argumentative, persuasive, expository, narrative, and descriptive, each with its own unique characteristics and objectives.

What Is Report?

A report is a formal and structured document that presents information, data, findings, or recommendations on a specific topic, issue, or problem. Reports are typically written for a targeted audience, such as business professionals, government officials, researchers, or stakeholders, and they serve various purposes:

Information Dissemination : Reports convey objective and factual information, often gathered through research, investigation, or analysis.

Problem-Solving : Some reports are designed to address specific problems or challenges, offering solutions or recommendations.

Decision-Making : Reports provide the necessary data and analysis to support informed decision-making processes.

Documentation : They serve as records of events, actions, or research, preserving information for future reference.

Accountability : Reports may be used to document the performance or progress of projects, organizations, or individuals, ensuring accountability.

Main Difference between Essay and Report

• An essay serves as a concise literary composition for presenting and analyzing ideas, while a report is a formal document that communicates research findings.
• Essays blend subjective analysis with personal ideas, while reports maintain objectivity by relying on past research and current data.
• Essays incorporate general facts and the writer’s opinions in a non-fictional manner. Conversely, reports offer information that aids in identifying facts or supports decision-making and problem-solving.
• Reports are structured with sections featuring engaging headings, while essays follow a continuous flow but are divided into coherent paragraphs.
• Reports use visuals like tables, charts, graphs, and statistics for clarity, whereas essays typically do not include such elements.
• Essay conclusions reflect the writer’s personal opinions and tend to be optimistic, lacking recommendations for future actions. Reports provide impartial conclusions, potentially including expert opinions and recommendations for further research and improvement.

Similarities between Essay and Report

• Both are written documents.
• They require clear and coherent writing.
• Proper grammar, punctuation, and style are essential in both.
• Both may require citations and references.
• They serve as means of conveying information or ideas.
• Both should have a well-organized structure.
• An introduction and conclusion are common elements in both.

In conclusion, while essays and reports are both written forms of communication, they serve distinct purposes and exhibit notable differences in their characteristics and structures.

Essays are primarily vehicles for presenting, analyzing, and discussing ideas or viewpoints, often incorporating subjective analysis and personal opinions.

In contrast, reports are formal documents intended to convey objective information, research findings, or recommendations, maintaining objectivity and utilizing data and past research.

The structural variances are evident, with essays featuring a continuous flow of text divided into paragraphs, while reports are organized into sections with informative headings for clarity. Additionally, reports often employ visual aids like charts and tables, enhancing data presentation.

Finally, their conclusions differ significantly, as essays express personal opinions and optimism, while reports provide impartial conclusions with recommendations for further research or action.

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Report vs Essay: A Clear and Complete Comparison of Them

Publish Date: 10 November 2023

Reports and essays are both forms of academic writing. They each serve different purposes and cater to specific audiences. Thus, understanding the differences between them is crucial. This blog post will delve into the differences between reports and essays. Also, we will explore their purposes and structures. Furthermore, we will look at their content and writing styles. And finally, we will look at the situations where each format is usable.

Table of contents

Report vs essay: purpose and audience.

• Report vs Essay: Structural Differences

Report vs Essay: Content and Focus

Report vs essay: writing style and tone, when to use report vs essay.

Before we get into the specifics, look at the purposes and target audiences of reports and essays. Thus, helping us understand the core difference between a report and an essay.

• Purpose of Reports: Reports are documents designed to give out information. Namely, they are usually an analysis or research findings on a particular topic . They aim to inform and persuade. Or, they may provide recommendations to a specific audience. Moreover, reports are often used in a professional or organisational context.
• Purpose of Essays: Essays, on the other hand, are more broad in nature. They usually present various arguments or ideas. Thus, they analyse concepts or interpret information. Essays encourage critical thinking and often involve personal opinions. Therefore, making them a platform for expressing ideas and engaging readers.
• Target Audience for Report vs Essay: Reports usually target decision-makers, stakeholders, or experts in a specific field. Namely, those who need accurate and correct information. However, Essays target a broader audience. Such as, educators, peers, or the general public. Hence, they usually aim to provoke thoughtful discussion and debate.

Structural Differences

To start the comparison, let’s look at how essays are written and how reports are written. Therefore, we can compare how they differ in style and structure.

Report Structure:

Reports follow a structured format. This includes a title page, abstract, introduction, method, findings, conclusion, recommendations, and references. Thus, it ensures a logical flow of information. Therefore, allowing readers to easily understand the research process and outcomes.

Essay Structure:

Essays have a more flexible and varied structure. However, they generally consist of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. There is no fixed rule for the paragraphs in the body. However, essays often present arguments in a structured manner. Additionally, supporting them with evidence and analysis. Furthermore, citations and references are used to show the sources used. Therefore, improving the credibility of the arguments discussed in the essay.

Now, let’s look at the content and focus differences between reports and essays. Hence, understanding the approaches writers take within these two forms of writing.

• Content in Reports: Reports focus on presenting data, analysis, and research findings. They rely on facts, charts, graphs, and tables to support their conclusions. The content in reports is objective. Therefore, it aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the topic under investigation.
• Content in Essays: Essays prioritise arguments, discussions, and understandings. They explore various ideas. Also, they may look at theories or concepts. Additionally, essay writers often give personal opinions on matters. Essays may delve into historical context or case studies to support their claims. Thus, encouraging readers to properly assess the presented information.
• Focus in Reports: Reports maintain a neutral stance. Therefore, focusing on the presentation of information without personal bias. The focus lies on providing accurate data and analysis. In turn, let readers draw their own conclusions based on the evidence.
• Focus in Essays: Essays adopt a biased approach. Hence, encouraging writers to express their opinions and ideas. The focus is on exploring various viewpoints. Namely, engaging with existing writing, and challenging common ideas. Essays invite readers to consider the writer’s perspective and think about the ideas presented.

Moving forward, we will look at the writing styles that are different in reports and essays. Also, we will be diving into the details of language and expression within each.

• Writing Style in Reports: Reports use a formal and clear writing style. Hence, the language used is technical and straightforward. Thus, making sure of clarity and precision in giving out information. Furthermore, passive voice is often preferred in reports to maintain an impersonal tone.
• Writing Style in Essays: Essays exhibit a formal to semi-formal writing style. This is characterised by analytical and persuasive language. Moreover, writers craft their sentences carefully by employing language devices. Thus, improving the persuasiveness of their arguments. Active voice is common in essays. Thus, allowing writers to convey their ideas in a more personal and direct way.
• Tone Differences in Report vs Essay: The tone in reports remains neutral and free of personal opinions or emotions. The focus is on providing information without influencing the reader’s judgment.

Here, we will discuss the situations where reports and essays should be used in place of each other. Thus, guiding writers on when to opt for one over the other.

• Situations Where Reports are Preferred: Reports are preferred in analytics and academic research. They are ideal for research findings, market analyses, or financial data. Furthermore, they are usually meant for those who need detailed and factual information. Namely, people like stakeholders, managers, or field experts. 
• Situations Where Essays are Preferred: Essays find their place in personal writing. Writings such as literary analyses and philosophical ideas. Additionally, they are useful when looking at abstract concepts and literary works. Also, they are useful for debating social issues or sharing personal opinions. Essays invite readers to engage in thinking. Thus, making them suitable for educational purposes.
• Choosing the Appropriate Format: Choosing between a report and an essay depends on the purpose of the communication. Is the goal to inform professionals, decision-makers, or experts? If so, a report would be the appropriate choice due to its structured and factual nature. However, if the aim is to provoke thought, stimulate discussion, or present personal viewpoints, an essay would be the preferred format. Thus, allowing for a more exploratory and engaging approach.

In short, reports are like detailed and organised summaries. Thus, making them great for serious topics and professional settings. Meanwhile, essays are more like personal conversations. Thus, making them perfect for expressing ideas and opinions in a friendly way. Knowing when to use each one helps you share your thoughts better. So, keep this in mind for the next time. Happy Writing!

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Essay vs. Report: What's the Difference?

Key Differences

Comparison chart, tone and style, inclusion of opinion, essay and report definitions, what is the primary aim of an essay, are reports subjective, how is a report typically structured, can essays contain personal opinions, is a report a detailed account, are essays longer than reports, what's the tone of a report, are essays always formal, should essays be persuasive, can an essay be a literary composition, can essays explore philosophical concepts, do essays have a rigid structure, can reports include tables and figures, who is the typical audience for an essay, what's the main objective of a report, do reports always result from research, who typically reads a report, can a report be spoken, is critical thinking essential in essay writing, do reports make recommendations.

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Home » Language » Difference Between Essay and Report

Difference Between Essay and Report

Main difference – essay vs report.

Essay and report writing is an area that confuses many people .  Despite having some similarities, they both are written in different styles. Both Essays and Reports must be written in a formal academic style while carefully checking grammar, spelling, and presentations. There are some common features in essay and report writing as both start with an introduction, body with discussions and analysis, and finally conclusions that demonstrate writer’s analytical thinking ability. However, there are some significant differences between Essays and Reports, and writers should be well aware of these differences before starting to write. The main difference between these two types of writings is their purpose ; an essay presents writer’s personal ideas and opinions about a certain topic while a report provides unbiased information about a certain issue.

What is an Essay

Essay is a piece of writing that describes, analyzes and evaluates a certain topic or an issue . An essay generally contains a combination of facts, statistics and writer’s personal view and opinions. An  essay can be categorized into various types, depending on the nature of the title and the style of the author. Descriptive, Narrative, Argumentative, Persuasive, and Expository are some of these types of Essays. Though there is no strict format for essay writing, an essay generally includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. Essays are mostly used in the field of Education and are usually about academic subjects.

What are the Different Types of Essays

How to write an essay, what is a report.

A report is a systematic, well-organised document that defines and analyses a certain issue or a problem . The primary aim of a report is to provide information. A report is divided into several sections, headings, and sub-headings. A report is divided into sections in this manner so that anyone can scan the document and find quickly, the specific information he/she needs. Reports are used in different fields, and various types of reports written for different purposes can be found in our day to day life. Reports are generally written for practical purposes. Academic reports, Business reports, Laboratory reports are examples of such reports. Another significant feature that can be observed in a report is that the writer indicates recommendations,  solutions to the issue at the end of the report. Graphs, tables, sentences in bullet points can also be used in report writing.

Let us now look at the difference between essay and report separately. One of the main difference between essay and report is the purpose. An essay is written to present writer’s personal ideas and opinions while a report is written to provide information about a certain issue. Another significant difference between essay and report is the format. A report is divided into sections, headings, and sub-headings, but an essay is never divided into sections and headings; it has interconnecting paragraphs. The conclusion of a report is unbiased and recommendations are provided at the end while the conclusion of an essay depends heavily on the opinion of the author. A report contains graphs and tables while an essay rarely contains graphs and tables. An appendix can be attached to the report for further reference. One of the most efficient features of a report, is that  the information can be found quickly by scanning the headings and sections but, in an essay, it is difficult to find a specific information without reading the whole essay.

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Explore the Key Difference Between Essay and Report

Table of Content

Advantages of Essays:

Advantages of reports:, quality content:, thorough research:, structured writing:, editing and proofreading:, customization:.

When it comes to academic writing, understanding the difference between " Essay vs Report " is crucial. These two forms may seem similar initially, but each has unique characteristics and purposes. Therefore, it is important to grasp the differences, as you'll be better equipped to decide when to use an essay or a report for your writing tasks.

In this blog, we'll delve into the critical disparities between a "report vs essay" to help you with this academic writing more effectively. We'll break down their specific features so that you have a clear understanding of how to choose between an essay and a report and meet their respective requirements. So, if you are aiming for top grades, this guide will empower you to write confidently in both styles. But before that, you should know the meaning of essay and report.

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Meaning of Essay and Report

Academic essays and academic reports are two distinct forms of academic writing that serve different purposes and have different structures. Here are the key differences between an  essay vs report :

This academic writing allows you to express your opinions on a particular topic. Essays are more flexible and subjective, emphasizing critical thinking, and the use of supporting evidence to back up the writer's claims. Moreover, they are frequently used to explore complex ideas, engage in academic discourse, and develop writing skills. In case of difficulty, you can always pay for essay  to experts.

These are structured and objective documents that present factual information and findings on a specific topic. Unlike essays, reports are more focused on providing information rather than presenting personal opinions or arguments. These are often based on research, investigation, or data analysis.

Understanding the meaning of both essay vs report can help you approach each type of writing appropriately and effectively.However, if you need assistance with either form, you can ask, “Can you  write my essay for me  or report? Now, let's further check out the advantages of writing these tasks.

Advantages of Essay and Report in Academics

In school or college, when you have to write things, there are two significant ways to do it: essays and reports. They each have their good sides, and it's essential to understand the strengths of "essay vs report " in academics. In this part, we will look at the advantages of using essays and reports for your college work. Let's see why essays and reports are excellent and how they can help you improve in universities.

Here are the advantages of essay in academics that you need to know:

• Expressiv e : Essays, in the context of essay vs report, enable writers to express their thoughts, opinions, and analyses on a topic, fostering creativity and critical thinking. They provide a platform to present arguments persuasively and engage readers.
• Flexibility : Essays offer flexibility in structure and content, allowing writers to adapt their approach based on the topic and purpose, you may require  essay help . This versatility enables the exploration of complex ideas and encourages individual writing styles.
• Personal Development : Writing essays enhances various skills such as research, critical thinking, organization, and communication. It helps writers develop their ability to articulate ideas, analyze information, and construct logical arguments.
• Academic Discourse : Essays contribute to academic discourse by facilitating discussions and debates on various subjects. They encourage scholars to engage with existing research, challenge ideas, and contribute to the body of knowledge.

Now, as you know, the advantages of writing an academic essay. Let's discuss some advantages of report writing, to know the difference between report vs essay more clearly.

Here are the advantages of report writing in academics that you need to learn:

• Accuracy : Reports prioritize objectivity and provide accurate and reliable information. They present data, research findings, and evidence-based conclusions, making them valuable for decision-making and informing actions.
• Structure Clarity : Reports follow a structured format, making them easy to navigate and comprehend, whether for professional communication or presenting research findings. It allows readers to locate specific information quickly.
• Professional Communication : Reports are commonly used in professional and scientific contexts to communicate research findings, project outcomes, or business insights. They provide a concise and standardized way to present complex information.
• Evidence-Based : Reports aid evidence-based decision-making by systematically presenting data and research findings. They help students assess the validity and reliability of information.

It's important to note that the advantages mentioned above, in the context of  essay vs report , can offer a great help in your academics. Both essays and reports have unique strengths and serve different purposes in academia and professional settings. Let's move forward to understand the differences between the academic writing tasks.

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Difference Between Essay and Report

Remember that these distinctions can vary based on specific academic requirements or disciplines, so it's important to refer to your guidelines for precise instructions on structuring your essay vs report. However, if you are still struggling with writing any of these academic writing tasks, then it is best to seek help from experts and learn how to write a report  or an essay. Check out the below section to know how our experts can help you.

How Our Experts Can Help You?

At Assignment Desk, our expertise in e ssay v s r eport  writing can be invaluable to individuals seeking academic or professional assistance. By leveraging our skills, you can access comprehensive, well-researched, and expertly crafted essays and reports on a wide range of topics. Our "Report Writing Services" can help clients save time, reduce stress, and achieve better grades or outcomes. Here's how we can assist:

We deliver high-quality, original content tailored to your specific requirements, adhering to academic standards and guidelines for both "Essays" and "Reports."

We conduct in-depth research, compile relevant data, and cite sources properly to support arguments and claims in both essays and reports.

We ensure a clear, logical structure for essays, and appropriate headings, subheadings, and sections for reports.

We review and refine content for grammar, spelling, and formatting errors, enhancing the overall clarity and coherence of the work in both essay vs report.

Our experts tailor each piece to individual needs, respecting specific guidelines, formats, and deadlines for both essays and reports.

Our experts can be a valuable resource for those seeking help with " Essay Vs Report " writing. Also, we offer them the opportunity to excel in their academic or professional endeavors through our specialized report writing services  that you can get help with.I hope we have resolved your query and you would seek assistance in case you are still in dilemma.

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Essay vs. Report — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Essay and Report

Table of contents, key differences, comparison chart, compare with definitions, common curiosities, can an essay include personal opinions, how long can an essay be, do all essays require citations, can essays be narrative, what is the primary goal of an essay, what's the main content of a report's methodology section, are reports always objective, how is a report structured differently from an essay, are reports only used in academic settings, share your discovery.

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• The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples

The Four Main Types of Essay | Quick Guide with Examples

Published on September 4, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common type. 

In high school and college, you will also often have to write textual analysis essays, which test your skills in close reading and interpretation.

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Table of contents

Argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, textual analysis essays, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of essays.

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis statement —a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations ) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

• The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
• The body presents your evidence and arguments
• The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.

Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing . Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its structure.

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

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Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain effects.

Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech . Mouse over it to learn more.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis

A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on Frankenstein , to learn more.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

• In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
• In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
• In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

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Difference Between Essay and Report

Essays and reports are both common types of written assignments that students are required to complete in school. However, there are some key differences between the two that you should be aware of.

Here is a comparison table that summarizes the main differences between essays and reports:

Essays are typically shorter than reports and are more focused on the author’s perspective and argument. Reports, on the other hand, are longer and are more focused on presenting information objectively.

Table of Contents

What is Essay?

An essay is a piece of writing that presents the author’s argument or point of view on a particular topic. It is typically longer than a paragraph, but shorter than a full-length book. Essays are often written in a formal, academic style and may be structured with an introduction, body, and conclusion.

In an essay, the author’s own perspective and opinion are important and are often the main focus of the piece. The purpose of an essay is to express an opinion, persuade the reader to adopt a particular viewpoint, or argue a point. Essays may be written on a wide range of topics and may take on various forms, such as narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive.

What is Report?

A report is a written document that presents information about a particular subject. Reports are often longer than essays and are more focused on presenting information objectively. They are typically written in a formal, academic style and may be structured with an introduction, body, and conclusion.

The purpose of a report is to present information, explain a particular subject, or describe something in detail. Reports may be written on a wide range of topics and may take on various forms, such as investigative, technical, or business reports.

Reports may include information from research, experiments, or other sources, and may be accompanied by charts, tables, and other visual aids to help illustrate the information being presented.

Main Key Difference Between Essay and Report

Here are some main differences between essays and reports:

• Essays are pieces of writing that present the author’s own argument or point of view on a particular topic.
• Reports are pieces of writing that present information about a particular subject.
• Both essays and reports typically have an introduction, body, and conclusion.
• Essays are typically written in a personal, subjective tone and may express the author’s opinion or perspective on a topic.
• Reports are typically written in an impersonal, objective tone and are focused on presenting information rather than expressing personal opinions.
• Essays can vary in length, but are generally shorter than reports.
• Reports are typically longer than essays.
• The purpose of an essay is to express an opinion, persuade the reader to adopt a particular viewpoint, or argue a point.
• The purpose of a report is to present information, explain a particular subject, or describe something in detail.
• Both essays and reports are typically written in a formal, academic style.

Here are a few ideas for writing a unique conclusion for a blog post:

• Recap the main points of the post and emphasize the key takeaways for the reader.
• Ask a thought-provoking question that encourages the reader to reflect on the topic and engage with the content in a deeper way.
• Share a personal story or anecdote that relates to the topic of the post and adds a personal touch to the conclusion.
• Offer a call to action, such as inviting readers to leave a comment or share their own experiences related to the topic.
• Offer additional resources or further reading suggestions for readers who want to learn more about the topic.
• End with a quote or a piece of advice that sums up the post and leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

Sajius Islam is a creative writer who enjoys Blog & Content Writing. He received his Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) degree from Guwahati University, Guwahati. He loves spending time with her family and friends, traveling, and exploring new cultures.

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What is the difference between Essay and Report?

Essay is "a short piece of writing on a particular subject." based on Oxford Dictionaries definition

However I don't know exactly what a report is. is it "information about something:"( https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/report )?

what is the difference between them especially in academia

• 3 The dictionaries aren't particularly informative here, but there's a bunch of information online if you search for "essay vs. report". The specifics may vary, but usually an essay is a continuous piece of prose presenting an argument, while a report presents information and can include things like bullet points, tables and charts. –  Maciej Stachowski Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 22:43
• 1 visit Wikipedia if you desire more detail en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay and en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Report –  Mari-Lou A Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 23:02
• I suggest you edit the question and ask the question you really want the answer to. Should the past tense be always used in a report, and if so, why? –  Mari-Lou A Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 23:13

2 Answers 2

Briefly, an essay is often a piece of writing where the author is discussing a statement or presenting a point of view. In schools it is usually formal and factual, but the student gets the opportunity to express their opinion as long as it is supported with valid examples and data.

On the other hand, a report is a collection of facts, data, and often involves the results of a survey or questionnaire. It should be formal and neutral and presented in such a way that the reader finds the relevant pieces of information as quickly and as easily as possible.

• aren't both of them a collection of facts and data and formal so what is the difference? –  pobig43001 Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 22:54
• I thought I said the author can express their opinion in an essay. It is a freer piece of writing but not as free as an article. –  Mari-Lou A Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 22:56
• do reports always use past tense since they are collections of facts, data and often involve surveys or questionnaire? –  pobig43001 Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 22:58
• It depends on the author. If they want to represent information that is relevant to "now" by using the present tense it should be possible –  Mari-Lou A Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 23:00
• I found these ( answers.com/Q/Is_a_report_written_in_past_tense ) ( quora.com/Is-a-report-written-in-past-tense ) and that they should be written in past tense and it is confusing to me to be honest –  pobig43001 Commented Mar 19, 2021 at 23:07

"Report" is more general than "essay" and can have a wider range of connotations or implications, so it may need more adjectives or context around it as compared with an essay, for the listener's understanding. An essay is most often understood to be a relatively short piece of writing on a certain topic, while a report can be spoken, written, short, long, and so on. Reports have a wider range of usage than essays, which are commonly found in academic or literary contexts. Reports are common in media, institutions, scientific contexts, organizations, and so on.

• you can also write an essay more generally? I mean I am still confused, what is the real difference since I see none. –  pobig43001 Commented Mar 20, 2021 at 17:11
• An essay can fulfil the purpose of a report and vice versa. The word essay is just more specific than a report. –  Rubrud Commented Mar 20, 2021 at 17:27
• so they are the same thing? –  pobig43001 Commented Mar 20, 2021 at 17:28
• "Report" has multiple meanings. So they can mean the same thing if you're using "report" to describe an essay that fulfils the purpose of a report. –  Rubrud Commented Mar 20, 2021 at 17:29
• @Ruburd but what is the difference for instance "formal report" and "essay" what is the difference ? –  pobig43001 Commented Mar 20, 2021 at 17:41

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Is ‘founder mode’ or ‘manager mode’ better? Here’s what the 22 Fortune 500 companies still run by founders show

The buzziest buzz term in the tech world is suddenly “founder mode,” coined only days ago and fast propagating into business worldwide. Founder mode is a way of running a company—the way a founder would run it—as distinct from manager mode, the way it would be run by “merely a professional manager.” So says Paul Graham, a cofounder of the Y Combinator startup accelerator, who originated the terms in a recent essay . He disdains manager mode and finds founder mode far superior. So—is it?

Graham is well positioned to judge. Over the past 19 years, Y Combinator has helped to birth thousands of companies including Airbnb , DoorDash , Reddit, and Stripe . He was inspired to identify two modes of managing after hearing a recent speech by Airbnb cofounder Brian Chesky, who described his awful experience bringing in outside managers. The speech struck a chord with other founders in the audience. Graham’s distillation of their views:

“Hire good people and give them room to do their jobs. Sounds great when it’s described that way, doesn’t it? Except in practice, judging from the report of founder after founder, what this often turns out to mean is: hire professional fakers and let them drive the company into the ground.”

Not a warm vote of confidence in outsider MBAs. To see if such scorn is justified, let’s look at some data.

Founder mode vs. manager mode

The Fortune 500 includes 22 companies that are run by their founders (list below). We calculated each company’s performance during its current founder-CEO’s tenure and compared it with the performance of the rest of the 500 over that same time span. We measured performance by cumulative return, which includes stock price performance and dividends.

Result: a blowout in favor of the founder-CEOs. Specifically:

· Cumulative total return during the founder-CEOs’ tenures —The founder-CEOs’ companies delivered a median of 1,129% vs. 57% for the rest of the 500.

· Performance vs. the S&P 500 (a performance score of 100 equals the market) —The median return of the founder-CEO companies was a performance score of 202, while the median of the rest of the Fortune 500 was 92.

· Performance vs. the sector (a performance score of 100 equals the sector) —The founder-CEO companies delivered a median performance score of 656.

The superiority of the founder-CEOs is breathtaking. But if we used this data to declare that founder mode beats manager mode, the world’s statisticians would have us arrested for the crime of survivor bias. Those 22 founder-CEO companies are a tiny fraction of the many thousands of startups launched over the same time periods, and we don’t have data on how each was managed. For starters, what percentage of startups crashed and burned under outsider managers versus what percentage crashed and burned under the founders? We would like to know that and much more.

Still, we know at least two relevant facts. First, we know that the forces determining who runs a growing startup have been well studied and explained. Noam Wasserman, dean of Yeshiva University’s business school, was on the faculty of Harvard Business School when he studied thousands of startups and wrote The Founder’s Dilemmas . It describes in detail how entrepreneurs balance conflicting personal preferences that influence who—a founder or outsider—runs the business. In response to Graham’s distaste for outsider managers, he tells Fortune : “Founders who were great for the early stages, but do not have what it takes for the often very different next stage of company development, may instead be the ones who ‘drive the company into the ground.’”

Second, we know that on average, the few founder-run companies that make it to the Fortune 500 are formidably great performers, and we should know more about how they joined that exclusive club. Graham wrote in his essay, “There are as far as I know no books specifically about founder mode. Business schools don’t know it exists … But now that we know what we’re looking for, we can search for it. I hope in a few years founder mode will be as well understood as manager mode.”

That’s a worthy goal. Founder mode should absolutely be studied and taught, not because outside managers are necessarily toxic, but because the research can make available to others the lessons learned by those rare founders—Apple’s Steve Jobs, Microsoft’s Bill Gates, Nvidia’s Jensen Huang—who managed their companies from nothing to greatness.

Founder CEOs in the 2024 Fortune 500

Company                                

Airbnb/Brian Chesky

Apollo Global Management/Marc Rowan

BlackRock/Laurence D. Fink

Blackstone/Stephen Schwarzman

Block/Jack Dorsey

Capital One Financial/Richard Fairbank

Carvana/Ernest C. Garcia III

Coupang/Bom Kim

Dell Technologies/Michael Dell

DoorDash/Tony Xu

Intercontinental Exchange/Jeffrey Sprecher

Meta Platforms /Mark Zuckerberg

Nvidia/Jensen Huang

Prologis/Hamid R. Moghadam

Regeneron Pharmaceuticals/Leonard S. Schleifer

Salesforce/Marc Benioff

Sanmina/Jure Sola

Skechers U.S.A./Robert Greenberg

Steel Dynamics/Mark D. Millett

Super Micro Computer/Charles Liang

Tesla/Elon Musk

Wayfair/Niraj S. Shah

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Key things to know about U.S. election polling in 2024

Confidence in U.S. public opinion polling was shaken by errors in 2016 and 2020. In both years’ general elections, many polls underestimated the strength of Republican candidates, including Donald Trump. These errors laid bare some real limitations of polling.

In the midterms that followed those elections, polling performed better . But many Americans remain skeptical that it can paint an accurate portrait of the public’s political preferences.

Restoring people’s confidence in polling is an important goal, because robust and independent public polling has a critical role to play in a democratic society. It gathers and publishes information about the well-being of the public and about citizens’ views on major issues. And it provides an important counterweight to people in power, or those seeking power, when they make claims about “what the people want.”

The challenges facing polling are undeniable. In addition to the longstanding issues of rising nonresponse and cost, summer 2024 brought extraordinary events that transformed the presidential race . The good news is that people with deep knowledge of polling are working hard to fix the problems exposed in 2016 and 2020, experimenting with more data sources and interview approaches than ever before. Still, polls are more useful to the public if people have realistic expectations about what surveys can do well – and what they cannot.

With that in mind, here are some key points to know about polling heading into this year’s presidential election.

Probability sampling (or “random sampling”). This refers to a polling method in which survey participants are recruited using random sampling from a database or list that includes nearly everyone in the population. The pollster selects the sample. The survey is not open for anyone who wants to sign up.

Online opt-in polling (or “nonprobability sampling”). These polls are recruited using a variety of methods that are sometimes referred to as “convenience sampling.” Respondents come from a variety of online sources such as ads on social media or search engines, websites offering rewards in exchange for survey participation, or self-enrollment. Unlike surveys with probability samples, people can volunteer to participate in opt-in surveys.

Nonresponse and nonresponse bias. Nonresponse is when someone sampled for a survey does not participate. Nonresponse bias occurs when the pattern of nonresponse leads to error in a poll estimate. For example, college graduates are more likely than those without a degree to participate in surveys, leading to the potential that the share of college graduates in the resulting sample will be too high.

Mode of interview. This refers to the format in which respondents are presented with and respond to survey questions. The most common modes are online, live telephone, text message and paper. Some polls use more than one mode.

Weighting. This is a statistical procedure pollsters perform to make their survey align with the broader population on key characteristics like age, race, etc. For example, if a survey has too many college graduates compared with their share in the population, people without a college degree are “weighted up” to match the proper share.

How are election polls being conducted?

Pollsters are making changes in response to the problems in previous elections. As a result, polling is different today than in 2016. Most U.S. polling organizations that conducted and publicly released national surveys in both 2016 and 2022 (61%) used methods in 2022 that differed from what they used in 2016 . And change has continued since 2022.

One change is that the number of active polling organizations has grown significantly, indicating that there are fewer barriers to entry into the polling field. The number of organizations that conduct national election polls more than doubled between 2000 and 2022.

This growth has been driven largely by pollsters using inexpensive opt-in sampling methods. But previous Pew Research Center analyses have demonstrated how surveys that use nonprobability sampling may have errors twice as large , on average, as those that use probability sampling.

The second change is that many of the more prominent polling organizations that use probability sampling – including Pew Research Center – have shifted from conducting polls primarily by telephone to using online methods, or some combination of online, mail and telephone. The result is that polling methodologies are far more diverse now than in the past.

(For more about how public opinion polling works, including a chapter on election polls, read our short online course on public opinion polling basics .)

All good polling relies on statistical adjustment called “weighting,” which makes sure that the survey sample aligns with the broader population on key characteristics. Historically, public opinion researchers have adjusted their data using a core set of demographic variables to correct imbalances between the survey sample and the population.

But there is a growing realization among survey researchers that weighting a poll on just a few variables like age, race and gender is insufficient for getting accurate results. Some groups of people – such as older adults and college graduates – are more likely to take surveys, which can lead to errors that are too sizable for a simple three- or four-variable adjustment to work well. Adjusting on more variables produces more accurate results, according to Center studies in 2016 and 2018 .

A number of pollsters have taken this lesson to heart. For example, recent high-quality polls by Gallup and The New York Times/Siena College adjusted on eight and 12 variables, respectively. Our own polls typically adjust on 12 variables . In a perfect world, it wouldn’t be necessary to have that much intervention by the pollster. But the real world of survey research is not perfect.

Predicting who will vote is critical – and difficult. Preelection polls face one crucial challenge that routine opinion polls do not: determining who of the people surveyed will actually cast a ballot.

Roughly a third of eligible Americans do not vote in presidential elections , despite the enormous attention paid to these contests. Determining who will abstain is difficult because people can’t perfectly predict their future behavior – and because many people feel social pressure to say they’ll vote even if it’s unlikely.

No one knows the profile of voters ahead of Election Day. We can’t know for sure whether young people will turn out in greater numbers than usual, or whether key racial or ethnic groups will do so. This means pollsters are left to make educated guesses about turnout, often using a mix of historical data and current measures of voting enthusiasm. This is very different from routine opinion polls, which mostly do not ask about people’s future intentions.

When major news breaks, a poll’s timing can matter. Public opinion on most issues is remarkably stable, so you don’t necessarily need a recent poll about an issue to get a sense of what people think about it. But dramatic events can and do change public opinion , especially when people are first learning about a new topic. For example, polls this summer saw notable changes in voter attitudes following Joe Biden’s withdrawal from the presidential race. Polls taken immediately after a major event may pick up a shift in public opinion, but those shifts are sometimes short-lived. Polls fielded weeks or months later are what allow us to see whether an event has had a long-term impact on the public’s psyche.

How accurate are polls?

The answer to this question depends on what you want polls to do. Polls are used for all kinds of purposes in addition to showing who’s ahead and who’s behind in a campaign. Fair or not, however, the accuracy of election polling is usually judged by how closely the polls matched the outcome of the election.

By this standard, polling in 2016 and 2020 performed poorly. In both years, state polling was characterized by serious errors. National polling did reasonably well in 2016 but faltered in 2020.

In 2020, a post-election review of polling by the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) found that “the 2020 polls featured polling error of an unusual magnitude: It was the highest in 40 years for the national popular vote and the highest in at least 20 years for state-level estimates of the vote in presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial contests.”

How big were the errors? Polls conducted in the last two weeks before the election suggested that Biden’s margin over Trump was nearly twice as large as it ended up being in the final national vote tally.

Errors of this size make it difficult to be confident about who is leading if the election is closely contested, as many U.S. elections are .

Pollsters are rightly working to improve the accuracy of their polls. But even an error of 4 or 5 percentage points isn’t too concerning if the purpose of the poll is to describe whether the public has favorable or unfavorable opinions about candidates , or to show which issues matter to which voters. And on questions that gauge where people stand on issues, we usually want to know broadly where the public stands. We don’t necessarily need to know the precise share of Americans who say, for example, that climate change is mostly caused by human activity. Even judged by its performance in recent elections, polling can still provide a faithful picture of public sentiment on the important issues of the day.

The 2022 midterms saw generally accurate polling, despite a wave of partisan polls predicting a broad Republican victory. In fact, FiveThirtyEight found that “polls were more accurate in 2022 than in any cycle since at least 1998, with almost no bias toward either party.” Moreover, a handful of contrarian polls that predicted a 2022 “red wave” largely washed out when the votes were tallied. In sum, if we focus on polling in the most recent national election, there’s plenty of reason to be encouraged.

Compared with other elections in the past 20 years, polls have been less accurate when Donald Trump is on the ballot. Preelection surveys suffered from large errors – especially at the state level – in 2016 and 2020, when Trump was standing for election. But they performed reasonably well in the 2018 and 2022 midterms, when he was not.

During the 2016 campaign, observers speculated about the possibility that Trump supporters might be less willing to express their support to a pollster – a phenomenon sometimes described as the “shy Trump effect.” But a committee of polling experts evaluated five different tests of the “shy Trump” theory and turned up little to no evidence for each one . Later, Pew Research Center and, in a separate test, a researcher from Yale also found little to no evidence in support of the claim.

Instead, two other explanations are more likely. One is about the difficulty of estimating who will turn out to vote. Research has found that Trump is popular among people who tend to sit out midterms but turn out for him in presidential election years. Since pollsters often use past turnout to predict who will vote, it can be difficult to anticipate when irregular voters will actually show up.

The other explanation is that Republicans in the Trump era have become a little less likely than Democrats to participate in polls . Pollsters call this “partisan nonresponse bias.” Surprisingly, polls historically have not shown any particular pattern of favoring one side or the other. The errors that favored Democratic candidates in the past eight years may be a result of the growth of political polarization, along with declining trust among conservatives in news organizations and other institutions that conduct polls.

Whatever the cause, the fact that Trump is again the nominee of the Republican Party means that pollsters must be especially careful to make sure all segments of the population are properly represented in surveys.

The real margin of error is often about double the one reported. A typical election poll sample of about 1,000 people has a margin of sampling error that’s about plus or minus 3 percentage points. That number expresses the uncertainty that results from taking a sample of the population rather than interviewing everyone . Random samples are likely to differ a little from the population just by chance, in the same way that the quality of your hand in a card game varies from one deal to the next.

The problem is that sampling error is not the only kind of error that affects a poll. Those other kinds of error, in fact, can be as large or larger than sampling error. Consequently, the reported margin of error can lead people to think that polls are more accurate than they really are.

There are three other, equally important sources of error in polling: noncoverage error , where not all the target population has a chance of being sampled; nonresponse error, where certain groups of people may be less likely to participate; and measurement error, where people may not properly understand the questions or misreport their opinions. Not only does the margin of error fail to account for those other sources of potential error, putting a number only on sampling error implies to the public that other kinds of error do not exist.

Several recent studies show that the average total error in a poll estimate may be closer to twice as large as that implied by a typical margin of sampling error. This hidden error underscores the fact that polls may not be precise enough to call the winner in a close election.

Other important things to remember

Transparency in how a poll was conducted is associated with better accuracy . The polling industry has several platforms and initiatives aimed at promoting transparency in survey methodology. These include AAPOR’s transparency initiative and the Roper Center archive . Polling organizations that participate in these organizations have less error, on average, than those that don’t participate, an analysis by FiveThirtyEight found .

Participation in these transparency efforts does not guarantee that a poll is rigorous, but it is undoubtedly a positive signal. Transparency in polling means disclosing essential information, including the poll’s sponsor, the data collection firm, where and how participants were selected, modes of interview, field dates, sample size, question wording, and weighting procedures.

There is evidence that when the public is told that a candidate is extremely likely to win, some people may be less likely to vote . Following the 2016 election, many people wondered whether the pervasive forecasts that seemed to all but guarantee a Hillary Clinton victory – two modelers put her chances at 99% – led some would-be voters to conclude that the race was effectively over and that their vote would not make a difference. There is scientific research to back up that claim: A team of researchers found experimental evidence that when people have high confidence that one candidate will win, they are less likely to vote. This helps explain why some polling analysts say elections should be covered using traditional polling estimates and margins of error rather than speculative win probabilities (also known as “probabilistic forecasts”).

National polls tell us what the entire public thinks about the presidential candidates, but the outcome of the election is determined state by state in the Electoral College . The 2000 and 2016 presidential elections demonstrated a difficult truth: The candidate with the largest share of support among all voters in the United States sometimes loses the election. In those two elections, the national popular vote winners (Al Gore and Hillary Clinton) lost the election in the Electoral College (to George W. Bush and Donald Trump). In recent years, analysts have shown that Republican candidates do somewhat better in the Electoral College than in the popular vote because every state gets three electoral votes regardless of population – and many less-populated states are rural and more Republican.

For some, this raises the question: What is the use of national polls if they don’t tell us who is likely to win the presidency? In fact, national polls try to gauge the opinions of all Americans, regardless of whether they live in a battleground state like Pennsylvania, a reliably red state like Idaho or a reliably blue state like Rhode Island. In short, national polls tell us what the entire citizenry is thinking. Polls that focus only on the competitive states run the risk of giving too little attention to the needs and views of the vast majority of Americans who live in uncompetitive states – about 80%.

Fortunately, this is not how most pollsters view the world . As the noted political scientist Sidney Verba explained, “Surveys produce just what democracy is supposed to produce – equal representation of all citizens.”

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Scott Keeter is a senior survey advisor at Pew Research Center .

Courtney Kennedy is Vice President of Methods and Innovation at Pew Research Center .

How do people in the U.S. take Pew Research Center surveys, anyway?

How public polling has changed in the 21st century, what 2020’s election poll errors tell us about the accuracy of issue polling, a field guide to polling: election 2020 edition, methods 101: how is polling done around the world, most popular.

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Sat 31st August

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The Rugby Championship

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South Africa 31

Tries: Mbonambi (17), Smith (69), Williams (75) Conversions: Feinberg-Mngomezulu (70,76) Penalties: Feinberg-Mngomezulu (30,37,46,50)

New Zealand 27

Tries: Taylor (7), Clarke (33,52), Barrett (42) Conversions: McKenzie (8,42) Penalties: McKenzie (48)

South Africa vs New Zealand Rugby Championship 4:00pm Saturday 31st August

South Africa 31-27 New Zealand: Springboks fight back to win gripping Rugby Championship contest

South africa are targeting their first rugby championship title since 2019; springboks fought back from a 10-point deficit with 20 minutes remaining to take the victory over the all blacks; south africa recorded their third victory in a row over new zealand.

Last Updated: 31/08/24 8:38pm

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South Africa cracked New Zealand late to win a gripping contest 31-27 at Ellis Park on Saturday and stay on course to win a first Rugby Championship since 2019.

The All Blacks led for almost the entire back-and-forth match, and by 10 points going into the last quarter.

However, they caved under relentless pressure from the Springboks, who were forcing all of the play in the last half-hour.

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After All Blacks replacement prop Ofa Tu'ungfasi was yellow-carded for collapsing a maul in the 67th minute, the Springboks used the player advantage to score two converted tries in six minutes to power from 27-17 behind to 31-27 ahead with five minutes to go.

A nail-biter, but the Boks have done it 🥳 #Springboks #ForeverGreenForeverGold #RSAvNZL pic.twitter.com/osGoEyGKMI — Springboks (@Springboks) August 31, 2024

For the match-winning try, the Springboks turned down a penalty shot to force an attacking lineout, where replacement scrum-half Grant Williams stepped through a gaping hole to score in the 74th minute.

The first contest between the sides since the Rugby World Cup final in Paris in October lived up to the hype, but while New Zealand scored four tries to three, their indiscipline again let it down.

Irish referee Andrew Brace, tired of the All Blacks' penalty count, warned them with half an hour to go.

The world champion Springboks have beaten New Zealand three straight times for the first time in 15 years.

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What a game, and what a performance from Sacha 😍 Thank you Joburg, you showed up 🙏 #Springboks #StrongerTogether pic.twitter.com/ZrgGprR0hr — Springboks (@Springboks) August 31, 2024

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World No 1 ranked South Africa will once against host New Zealand in the next round, but this time the fixture moves to the DHL Stadium in Cape Town on Saturday September 7, live on Sky Sports (4pm kick-off).

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