childhood bullying essay

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• v.5(1); 2021

Bullying in children: impact on child health

Richard armitage.

Division of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Associated Data

Bullying in childhood is a major public health problem that increases the risk of poor health, social and educational outcomes in childhood and adolescence. These consequences are felt by all those involved in bullying (bullies, victims and bully–victims) and are now recognised to propagate deep into adulthood. Cyberbullying is a relatively new type of bullying in addition to the traditional forms of direct physical, direct verbal and indirect bullying. Children who are perceived as being ‘different’ in any way are at greater risk of victimisation, with physical appearance being the most frequent trigger of childhood bullying. Globally, one in three children have been bullied in the past 30 days, although there is substantial regional variation in the prevalence and type of bullying experienced. The consequences of childhood bullying can be categorised into three broad categories: educational consequences during childhood, health consequences during childhood and all consequences during adulthood. Many dose–response relationships exist between the frequency and intensity of bullying experienced and the severity of negative health consequence reported. The majority of victims of cyberbullying are also victims of traditional bullying, meaning cyberbullying creates very few additional victims. Overall, adverse mental health outcomes due to bullying in childhood most severely impact on bully–victims. Bullying prevention is vital for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, with whole-school cooperative learning interventions having the strongest evidence base for successful outcomes. Clear management and referral pathways for health professionals dealing with childhood bullying are lacking in both primary and secondary care, although specialist services are available locally and online.

Key messages

• Bullying in childhood is a global public health problem that impacts on child, adolescent and adult health.
• Bullying exists in its traditional, sexual and cyber forms, all of which impact on the physical, mental and social health of victims, bullies and bully–victims.
• Children perceived as ‘different’ in any way are at greater risk of victimisation.
• Bullying is extremely prevalent: one in three children globally has been victimised in the preceding month.
• Existing bullying prevention interventions are rarely evidence-based and alternative approaches are urgently needed.

Introduction

Bullying in childhood has been classified by the WHO as a major public health problem 1 and for decades has been known to increase the risk of poor health, social and educational outcomes in childhood and adolescence. 2 Characterised by repeated victimisation within a power-imbalanced relationship, bullying encompasses a wide range of types, frequencies and aggression levels, ranging from teasing and name calling to physical, verbal and social abuse. 3 The dynamics within such relationships become consolidated with repeated and sustained episodes of bullying: bullies accrue compounding power while victims are stripped of their own and become progressively less able to defend themselves and increasingly vulnerable to psychological distress. 4

However, only in the last decade have prospective studies been published that reveal the far-reaching effects of childhood bullying that extend into adulthood. There is now substantial evidence that being bullied as a child or adolescent has a causal relationship to the development of mental health issues beyond the early years of life, including depression, anxiety and suicidality. 5 As such, addressing the global public health problem of bullying in childhood has received increasing international attention and is vital for the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4. 6 The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child health and education has focused further attention on bullying in its digital form, so-called ‘cyberbullying’, the prevalence of which is feared to be increasing. 7

Types of bullying

Participants in childhood bullying take up one of three roles: the victim, the bully (or perpetrator) or the bully–victim (who is both a perpetrator and a victim of bullying). 5 Victims and bullies either belong to the same peer group (peer bullying) or the same family unit (sibling bullying), 8 although bullying frequently occurs in multiple settings simultaneously, such as at school (peer bullying) and in the home (sibling bullying), representing a ubiquitous ecology of bullying that permeates the child’s life.

Three main types of bullying are observed, the typical characteristics of which are illustrated in table 1 .

Typical characteristics of the main types of childhood bullying

While traditional bullying has been recognised and studied for many decades 9 and is often accepted as an inevitable aspect of a normal childhood, 3 cyberbullying represents a relatively new phenomenon in which childhood bullying now takes place through digital modalities. The widespread uptake of electronic devices has reached almost complete saturation among adolescents in high-income countries, with users checking their devices hundreds of times and for hours each day. 10 While providing beneficial access to information and social support, this large and growing online exposure of young people renders them vulnerable to exploitation, gambling, and grooming by criminals and sexual abusers, as well as cyberbullying. 11 Due to the increased potential for large audiences, anonymous attacks and the permanence of posted messages, coupled with lower levels of direct feedback, reduced time and space limits, and decreased adult supervision, it is feared that cyberbullying may pose a greater threat to child and adolescent health than traditional bullying modalities. 12

Factors that influence bullying

Two large-scale international surveys regularly conducted by the WHO—the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) 13 and the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study 14 —provide data from 144 countries and territories in all regions of the world. These data identify specific factors that strongly influence the type, frequency and severity of bullying experienced by children and adolescents globally. These factors, which are briefly described in table 2 , suggest that children who are perceived as being ‘different’ in any way are at greater risk of victimisation.

Summary of factors that influence child and adolescent bullying 15

Prevalence of bullying

A 2019 report from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) 15 examined the global prevalence of bullying in childhood and adolescence using data from the GSHS and HBSC studies along with addition data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study 16 and the Programme for International Students Assessment. 17 It found that almost one in three (32%) children globally has been the victim of bullying on one or more days in the preceding month, and that 1 in 13 (7.3%) has been bullied on six or more days over the same period. 15 However, there is substantial regional variation in the prevalence of bullying across the world, ranging from 22.8% of children being victimised in Central America, through 25.0% and 31.7% in Europe and North America, respectively, to 48.2% in sub-Saharan Africa. There is also significant geographical variation in the type of bullying reported, with direct physical and sexual bullying being dominant in low-income and middle-income countries, and indirect bullying being the most frequent type in high-income regions. Nevertheless, bullying is a sizeable public health problem of truly global importance.

Encouragingly, there has been a decrease in the prevalence of bullying in half (50.0%) of countries since 2002, while 31.4% have seen no significant change over this time frame. 15 However, 18.6% of countries have witnessed an increase in childhood bullying, primarily among members of one sex or the other, although in both girls and boys in North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Myanmar, the Philippines, and United Arab Emirates. 15

Since its appearance, cyberbullying has received substantial media attention claiming that the near-ubiquitous uptake of social media among adolescents has induced a tidal wave of online victimisation and triggered multiple high-profile suicides among adolescents after being bullied online. 18 19 However, a recent meta-analysis suggests that cyberbullying is far less prevalent than bullying in its traditional forms, with rates of online victimisation less than half of those offline. 20 The study also found relatively strong correlations between bullying in its traditional and cyber varieties, suggesting victims of online bullying are also likely to be bullied offline, and that that these different forms of victimisation reflect alternative methods of enacting the same perpetrator behaviour. Recent evidence from England also indicates a difference between sexes, with 1 in 20 adolescent girls and 1 in 50 adolescent boys reporting cyberbully victimisation over the previous 2 months. 21

Consequences of bullying

There is a vast range of possible consequences of bullying in childhood, determined by multiple factors including the frequency, severity and type of bullying, the role of the participant (victim, bully or bully–victim) and the timing at which the consequences are observed (during childhood, adolescence or adulthood). The consequences can be grouped into three broad categories: educational consequences during childhood and adolescence, health consequences during childhood and adolescence, and all consequences during adulthood. Each will now be discussed individually.

Educational consequences during childhood and adolescence

Children who are frequently bullied are more likely to feel like an outsider at school, 17 while indirect bullying specifically has been shown to have a negative effect on socialisation and feelings of acceptance among children in schools. 22 Accordingly, a child’s sense of belonging at school increases as bullying decreases. 22 In addition, being bullied can affect continued engagement in education. Compared with those who are not bullied, children who are frequently bullied are nearly twice as likely to regularly skip school and are more likely to want to leave school after finishing secondary education. 16 The effect of frequent bullying on these educational consequences is illustrated in table 3 .

Relationship between being frequently bullied and educational consequences 20

Children who are bullied score lower in tests than those who are not. For example, in 15 Latin American countries, the test scores of bullied children were 2.1% lower in mathematics and 2.5% lower in reading than non-bullied children. 22 Compared with children never or almost never bullied, average learning achievement scores were 2.7% lower in children bullied monthly, and 7.5% lower in children bullied weekly, indicating a dose–response relationship. These findings are globally consistent across both low-income and high-income countries. 17

Health consequences during childhood and adolescence

Numerous meta-analyses, 2 23–26 longitudinal studies 5 27 28 and cross-sectional studies 29–31 have demonstrated strong relationships between childhood bullying and physical, mental and social health outcomes in victims, bullies and bully–victims. Some of these consequences are illustrated in table 4 . Reported physical health outcomes are mostly psychosomatic in nature. Most studies focused on the impacts on victims, although adverse effects on bullies and bully–victims are also recognised. Many studies identified a dose–response relationship between the frequency and intensity of bullying experienced and the severity of negative health consequence reported.

Summary of childhood health consequences of bullying during childhood

While there is significant regional variation, the association between childhood bullying and suicidal ideation and behaviour are recognised globally. 32 Alarmingly, childhood bully victimisation is associated with a risk of mental health problems similar to that experienced by children in public or substitute care. 33 Victimisation in sibling bullying is associated with substantial emotional problems in childhood, including low self-esteem, depression and self-harm, 8 and increases the risk of further victimisation through peer bullying. Overall, adverse mental health outcomes due to bullying in childhood appear to most severely impact on bully–victims, followed by victims and bullies. 34

Nine out of 10 adolescents who report victimisation by cyberbullying are also victims of bullying in its traditional forms, 35 meaning cyberbullying creates very few additional victims, 36 but is another weapon in the bully’s arsenal and has not replaced traditional methods. 37 Cyberbullying victimisation appears to be an independent risk factor for mental health problems only in girls and is not associated with suicidal ideation in either sex. 38 As such, traditional bullying is still the major type of bullying associated with poor mental health outcomes in children and adolescents. 21

Consequences during adulthood

A recent meta-analysis 39 and numerous other prospective longitudinal studies 40 41 that used large, population-based, community samples analysed through quantitative methods suggest that childhood bullying can lead to three main negative outcomes in adulthood for victims, bullies and bully–victims: psychopathology, suicidality and criminality. Some of these consequences are illustrated in table 5 .

Summary of adulthood consequences of bullying during childhood

A strong dose–response relationship exists between frequency of peer victimisation in childhood and adolescence and the risk of adulthood adversities. 39 For example, frequently bullied adolescents are twice as likely to develop depression in early adulthood compared with non-victimised peers, and is seen in both men and women. 41 Startlingly, the effects of this dose–response relationship seems to persist until at least 50 years of age. 33

The impact of childhood bully victimisation on adulthood mental health outcomes is staggering. Approximately 29% of the adulthood depression burden could be attributed to victimisation by peers in adolescence, 41 and bully victimisation by peers is thought to have a greater impact on adult mental health than maltreatment by adults, including sexual and physical abuse. 42 Finally, these consequences reach beyond the realm of health, as childhood bullying victimisation is associated with a lack of social relationships, economic hardship and poor perceived quality of life at age 50. 33

Bullying prevention

Until not long ago, being bullied was considered a normal rite of passage through which children must simply persevere. 3 However, the size and scale of its impact on child health, and later on adulthood health, are now clearly understood and render it a significant public health problem warranting urgent attention. 1 While parental and peer support are known to be protective against victimisation, regardless of global location, cultural norms or socioeconomic status, 43 structured programmes have been deployed at scale to prevent victimisation and its associated problems.

School-based interventions have been shown to significantly reduce bullying behaviour in children and adolescents. Whole-school approaches incorporating multiple disciplines and high levels of staff engagement provide the greatest potential for successful outcomes, while curriculum-based and targeted social skills training are less effective methods that may even worsen victimisation. 44 The most widely adopted approach is the Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme (OBPP), a comprehensive, school-wide programme designed to reduce bullying and achieve better peer relations among school-aged children. 9 However, despite its broad global uptake, meta-analyses of studies examining the effectiveness of the OBPP have shown mixed results across different cultures. 45–47

Cooperative learning, in which teachers increase opportunities for positive peer interaction through carefully structured, group-based learning activities in schools, is an alternative approach to bullying prevention that has recently gained traction and been shown to significantly reduce bullying and its associated emotional problems while enhancing student engagement and educational achievement. 48 Also housed within the educational environment, school-based health centres became popular in the USA in the 1990s and provided medical, mental health, behavioural, dental and vision care for children directly in schools, and have had some positive impacts on mitigating the prevalence and impact of bullying. 49 In the UK, school nurses act as liaisons between primary care and education systems, and are often the first to identify victims of bullying, although their numbers in the UK fell by 30% between 2010 and 2019. 50

Due to the link between sibling and peer bullying, there have been calls for bullying prevention interventions to be developed and made available to start in the home, and for general practitioners and paediatricians to routinely enquire about sibling bullying. 8

While countless cyberbullying prevention programmes, both offline and online, are marketed to educational institutions, only a small proportion have been rigorously evaluated. 51 Furthermore, as cyberbullying rarely induces negative impacts on child health independently, interventions to tackle these effects must also target traditional forms of bullying to have meaningful impact.

Addressing the global public health problem of bullying in childhood and adolescence is vital for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. In recognition of this, UNESCO recently launched its first International Day Against Violence and Bullying at School, an annual event which aims to build global awareness about the problem’s scale, severity and need for collaborative action. 52 Meaningful progress on this problem is urgently needed to increase mental well-being and reduce the burden of mental illness in both children and adults globally. Suggestions for immediate action are briefly described in box 1 .

Actions needed to improve child health through the prevention of bullying

• Promote the importance of parental and peer support in the prevention of bully victimisation across families and schools.
• Educate health professionals about the consequences of childhood bullying and provide training and resources to allow identification, appropriate management and timely referral of such cases (see further).
• Develop and make widely available bullying prevention interventions that tackle sibling bullying in the home.
• Create and deploy whole-school cooperative learning approaches to reduce bullying within educational institutions.
• Address cyberbullying with evidence-based interventions that also tackle traditional forms of bullying.
• Increase awareness of the presentation and impacts of bullying on child health among primary care professionals.

What to do if you suspect childhood bullying

GPs should be prepared to consider bullying as a potential contributory factor in presentations of non-specific physical and mental health complaints from children. While GPs recognise their responsibility to deal with disclosures of childhood bullying and its associated health consequences, they often feel unable to adequately do so due to the constraints of time-pressured primary care consultations, and uncertainty around the specialist services to which such children can be appropriately referred. 53

Clear management and referral pathways for health professionals dealing with childhood bullying are lacking in both primary and secondary care. Local, national and online antibullying organisations, such as Ditch the Label 54 and the Anti-Bullying Alliance, 55 provide free advice for children affected by bullying, and their parents, teachers and health professionals, along with free online certified CPD training for anyone working with children. School nurses continue to act as liaisons between primary care and education systems 56 and should be central to the multidisciplinary management of childhood bullying. Finally, if bullying is considered to be contributory to childhood depression, child and adolescent mental health services, along with primary care practitioners and educational professionals, should work collaboratively to foster effective antibullying approaches. 57

Supplementary Material

Contributors: RA was the sole contributor to the work.

Funding: The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests: No, there are no competing interests.

Patient and public involvement: Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, conduct, reporting or dissemination plans of this research.

Patient consent for publication: Not required.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable as no datasets have been generated and/or analysed for this study.

Home ➔ Free Essay Examples ➔ Bullying Essay

Bullying Essay – Writing Guide

A bullying essay is a piece of writing that explores the issue of bullying, its causes, effects, and possible solutions. Bullying is a widespread problem that affects people of all ages, genders, and backgrounds. It is a form of aggressive behavior that can be physical, verbal, or psychological, and is often repeated over time. Bullying can significantly impact the mental and emotional well-being of those affected, leading to anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and even suicide.

A bullying essay is an assignment that students can be required to write at all education levels. The problem of bullying is pervasive in schools and has many facets that must be addressed with equal consideration. That’s why there are many things you can write about in your essay on bullying. Read on to see a short essay example on this topic with a few comments and some topics you can use as examples for this assignment.

The bullying paper example below is divided into three core elements: introduction, body, and conclusion. Each part is followed by a short analysis of that part.

Bullying Essay Example (with commentaries)

Topic: The Three Major Effects of Bullying in Schools

Type: Informative Essay

Introduction

Bullying in schools has remained constant from decade to decade. Bullying is terrible for children in schools and can have various detrimental effects. According to the Centers for Disease Control and the Department of Education, bullying comprises three core elements: unwanted aggressive behavior, observed or perceived power imbalance, and repetition or high likelihood of repetition. It is alarming that almost 20% of students aged 12 to 18 experience bullying nationwide. School bullying can adversely affect kids, including health conditions, learning problems, low self-esteem, and mental health issues.

Introduction analysis:

The introduction oof this essay provides background information on bullying. Then, the writer uses statistics from credible sources as an attention hook, which is one of the good ways to start an essay. And it ends with a thesis statement that states the three main aspects that will be discussed in the essay. However, it lacks a proper transition between the hook and the thesis statement.

Body paragraphs

The first and one of the major negative effects of bullying in school is its ability to wreak havoc on a child’s health and well-being. Aside from physical injuries which may result from physical shoving or pushing, bullying can cause headaches, trouble sleeping, and stomach aches. The mind and body are connected; hence, any stressor to a child’s well-being can manifest as physical symptoms. Bullying may also aggravate pre-existing health conditions like skin, heart, and gastrointestinal diseases. The negative impact on a child’s health is one of the more obvious adverse effects of school bullying.

In addition to affecting the child’s physical health, bullying can cause learning struggles and delays in development. The academic impact on the child experiencing bullying can be overwhelming. Often, one of the first indicators that a child may be experiencing bullying is a sudden decline in grades or poor academic performance. Sometimes, kids are so caught up with how bullying makes them feel that they forget to study, don’t do their homework, or have difficulty paying attention in class and digesting the study material. Bullied children often make excuses to skip school, pretend to be sick, or lie to their parents about attending classes. Overall, the academic impact of bullying is one of the worst ones that must be considered when tackling the problem.

To make matters worse, besides negative physical health outcomes and unsatisfactory grades or a decline in academic achievement, kids who experience bullying in schools also suffer from poor self-esteem and mental health effects. For example, bullied kids tend to experience negative emotions such as social isolation, anger, loneliness, and more. In some cases with high school students, these negative emotions can lead to the misuse of drugs or alcohol. Bullying causes kids to feel poorly about themselves, increasing their risk for depression, anxiety, self-harm, or suicide. These effects can be short-term or long-lasting, even when bullying has ended.

Body analysis:

The body of the essay discusses the three main negative consequences of bullying mentioned in the thesis statement of this bullying essay. Each of these points is elaborated on with specific examples. The language used is clear and easy to understand. However, the essay does not flow smoothly from one point to the next and feels somewhat choppy as a result.

School bullying can have significant and detrimental negative effects on kids, including adverse health outcomes, inadequate academic performance, and mental struggles. Kids who are bullied are more likely to experience a manifestation of health conditions, which may become chronic. Bullying causes kids to be less likely to perform well academically and may cause them to skip class, thereby impacting their learning. Lastly, bullying causes kids to experience unhealthy emotions and poor self-esteem. Bullying is a chronic problem that we must continue to address in schools everywhere.

Conclusion analysis:

The essay’s conclusion restates the three main points of the body and reaffirms that bullying is a serious problem with far-reaching consequences. But, it feels somewhat abrupt and could be further developed at the very end, even though it is an informative piece.

97 Bullying Essay Examples – Here’s a PDF file with more examples of papers about bullying (by various authors). They vary in size and quality, so make sure to analyze them thoroughly.

What to Write About (Topics)

Below, you will find various ideas you can use to write an essay on bullying. The topics are divided by essay type as it will affect how you write and what you write about.

Expository essay : You can educate or inform your audience about bullying or define bullying from your unique perspective. Here are a few topic examples:

• Bullying in Primary and Secondary Schools
• How to Stand up to a Bully Effectively
• What Role Bystanders Play in Bullying Situations
• How to Support Someone Who is Being Bullied
• The Legal Repercussions of Bullying
• Existing Policies and Laws That Fight Bullying
• Best Ways to Handle Bullying for Educators
• How to Overcome the Consequences of Bullying
• Examples of Effective and Ineffective Anti-bullying Programs in Educational Institutions

Classification essay : You can explore and describe the types and subtypes of bullying. For example:

• Bullying in schools
• Workplace bullying
• Cyberbullying
• Bullying of children
• Bullying of teenagers
• Bullying of adults
• Verbal bullying
• Physical bullying
• Emotional bullying
• Racial bullying
• Religious bullying
• Cultural bullying
• Fat shaming

Problem-solution essay : You can explore and describe the possible solutions to bullying. Here are some topic examples for this bullying essay type:

• How schools can effectively address bullying
• The role of parents in preventing bullying
• How we can change the culture of bullying
• How we can support a bullying victim
• How to create a more positive school climate to prevent bullying

Cause and effect essay : You can explore and describe the effects of bullying or the causes that lead to bullying. Below are several topic samples:

• How bullying leads to school violence
• How bullying can lead students to suicidal thoughts
• The long-term effects of being bullied
• How bullying affects the academic performance of students
• The psychological consequences of bullying

Persuasive essay : You can try to take a stance on bullying and persuade the readers to take action. Such a bullying essay could be written on the following topics:

• School shootings: why do school shootings happen, and how can we prevent them?
• Repeated verbal abuse: how does repeated verbal abuse affect bullying victims, and what can be done to stop it?
• Family members: should family members be held responsible for bullying?
• Bystanders: what role do bystanders play in bullying, and how can we encourage them to take action?
• Social media: how does social media contribute to bullying, and what can be done to stop it?

Argumentative essay : You can argue your point of view on bullying or any of its aspects in an argumentative paper. Topic examples:

• What causes people to bully others?
• Can we end school bullying for sure?
• Should people who bully others be punished?
• Is there a difference between boys and girls who bully?
• Is there a link between bullying and poor mental health?

Narrative essay : You can tell your personal story related to bullying (if you have one) or a story of someone you know. Topic examples might include the following:

• How I studied bullying behavior for my project
• How spreading rumors ruined my middle-school life
• How other countries I have been to deal with school bullying
• Why I changed schools five times and don’t have many friends
• How it can get to you even through text messages

Bullying is a serious and growing problem affecting individuals, their families, and communities. It is a complex subject to broach and talk about because it provides little comfort to parents, but it should be discussed to implement strategies to mitigate bullying and its effects. And while it is true that some young people will likely “grow out of” being bullied, it’s also true that some never stop being bullied.

In conclusion, this essay guide on bullying has provided a comprehensive overview of the issue and its impact on individuals. It is a problem that affects individuals of all ages, backgrounds, and walks of life. By working together and taking action, we can help create a world where everyone feels safe, valued, and respected, and where bullying has no place. If you are writing an essay on this topic, this guide can serve as a valuable resource to help you better understand the issue and develop practical solutions to address it. Remember, if you or someone you know is being bullied, speaking out and seeking help is important.

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Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society Expository Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Past and current research on childhood bullying, effects of social structures and institutions on childhood bullying, relationship of childhood bullying and sociological theories, works cited.

Bullying is a form of scurrilous treatment which mainly entails emotional, physical or verbal harassment directed towards people of certain levels, gender, race and religion just to mention but a few. It mainly occurs when there is imbalance in power such that those deemed to be on the lower physical or social levels are bullied by those in the higher levels of power and social status.

Bullying can occur in many contexts especially where human beings interact with each other such as in the work places, learning institutions, family, churches among others. When bullying occurs, it causes oppression to the affected parties thus affecting their social life and studies in the case of students (Loseke, 37).

Childhood bullying on the other hand is the repetitive, harmful acts carried by one or a group of children against other children. Bullying takes various forms like being restrained and emotional for instance spreading gossips, influencing friendships or excluding other children; verbal like being intimidated and threatened or humiliating; or physical such as hitting, crashing against a hard surface, leaving some children out of activities kicking, punching ,taunting and most recently cyber-bullying.

Inherent in this characterization is a disparity in real or supposed authority involving the bully and victim (Reid, 150). The dominance of bullying and its consequent harm is taken too slightly by both children and their parents or adults in general despite the fact that there is a huge connection between bullying and other aggressive behaviors (Reid, 150).

Bullying entails harassment by influential children against children having not as much of power which is different from a conflict arising between peers of fairly equivalent status and thus intervention methods should be specific. This paper is therefore an exploration of the issue of childhood bullying by looking at the effect of social structures and institutions on childhood bullying. Past and present research with regard to childhood bullying will also be discussed.

An earlier study on the impact of childhood bullying and young adult self esteem ad loneliness showed that victims of bullies tend to be shy and lonely especially in their youth. It also showed that bullies tend to have a low self esteem as their main way of making friends and gaining popularity is through violence (Tritt & Duncan, 3).

Both children who bullied and their victims are more probable to be engaged in violence or violent behaviors in their youth than those who did not. However this is more common to those who bullied others (Reid, 152). For instance among boys who admitted to bullying others 43.1 percent carried a weapon to school compared to 36.4 percent of those who had been bullied. 38.7 percent of the bullies wee engrossed in numerous fighting compared to 22.6 percent bully victims (Tritt & Duncan, 3).

A study carried out in a miniature town from Midwest using 207 junior high and high school children as sample indicated that 88% percent of the students had witnessed bullying, with 77 percent of them being victims of bullying during their school life (Limber & Maury 1).

School and particularly classroom bullies are predisposed to have distressed relationships amid their parents as well as friends and could persist being troublesome all through their adolescence if their troubles will not be resolved on time, according to researchers at Canada’s “lbrk University and Queen’s University. They also recorded that bullying taking place outside the school surroundings could be more brutal than at school where adult management and additional security against violence is present (Crothers & Levinson, 498).

Various social institutions like family, school, peers, surrounding and media play a very important role in shaping the direction of childhood bullying. To begin with, the family which is the basic and the most important unit in the society as well as the primary socializing agent plays a major role in shaping behavior of children include bullying.

According to a research, children who come from families that have cases of domestic violence, will most likely be bullies in school. The first departure point is the role of parents in the sense o their personality. Interestingly, some parents look at bullying as a natural occurrence in the development cycle and usually not addressed as a problem (Limber & Maury 4).

Elizabeth Sweeney carried out a study that involved children aged between nine and sixteen for the 103 rd presentation of American Sociological Foundation. According to Sweeney her literature review established that children brought up by authoritarian parents as well as demanding, insensitive and directive were more predisposed to carrying out bullying activities (Reid 167).

Children who go through aggression, violence, physical discipline and other hostile behaviors by their parents are prone to assimilating such behavior amongst their peers. Children borrow a lot from their parents on behavior and interaction with other children. If children are exposed to aggressive and livid words at home, they will probably employ these bad attributes as survival machinery in interacting with other children (Reid 169).

Similarly children who are borne in middle-income family units recorded lower cases of bullying compared to children from the high and low family status. Bullying runs equally between boys and girls although boys tend to act on it more than girls (Crothers & Levinson 498).

Bullying is also popular with families whose members do not treat one another with respect or not teaching the children the essence of respecting other people’s rights. Intergenerational effect can be a factor in this regard where children with antisocial parents as well as grandparents are more likely to behave the same in teenage.

The school is an institution that both favors and shapes the concept of childhood bullying. According to a national survey in 2001 indicates that children as young as eight to nine years are becoming victims and perpetrators of childhood bullying (Crothers & Levinson 499).

Approximately, 74% of children aged between eight and eleven attested that bullying and teasing was frequently taking place in their school, whereas fifty percent of the parents did not look at bullying as a trouble for their children, however, bullying is most prevalent between students of age 11 to adolescence (Crothers & Levinson 500 ).

He school becomes an avenue of bullying because it brings convergence of children from different backgrounds, religions races, health situations as well as personalities. Bullying is also more prevalent in schools because of the higher probability of emergence of inappropriate relationships between students and also between the students and the staff since teachers are also involved in bullying (Limber & Maury 2).

However, the school is best placed in dealing with childhood bullying by; employing staff that is skilled in responding to signs of violence, a higher employee accountable for child protection, careful examination of staff before permitting them to work with children as well as implementing a policy on child protection clearly stating disciplinary cases for abuse.

Peer groups change their role in a great deal when children get adolescence because of the need to be accepted and recognized and attaining autonomy from parents. This often leads to increased pressure to get a social status and thus stratification is pegged on toughness and aggressiveness among boys and appearance among girls (Tritt & Duncan 2).

This ultimately leads to teasing, bullying, ridiculing and name-calling. The environment where a child lives or is brought up affects their involvement in bullying for instance violent streets and ghettos (Loseke 43).

Edwin Sutherland put forward differential association theory in 1974 which explained human behavior as being learned and the younger the learner the grater the relationship. A child’s behavior is adopted by interacting with other in a social setting through norms and values through the process of communication.

He also explained that behavior is leant in primary groups like family, peers, friends and close companions. This theory helps understand the role of family, peers and other relatives in childhood bullying. It justifies that most bullies have adopted violent behavior from families and peers in school in search of social status.

Parents’ and caregivers’ involvement and participation in development greatly shapes their behavior according to Urie Bronfenbrenner in his theory of social ecological model. The better and nurturing the involvement is the better the child is going to be. Childs treatment in the micro-system determines how people treat her on the other hand since their unique genetic and biological make up influence how others treat them.

In his exo-system level he explains how people and other places that a child does not directly associate with like parents’ workplace or neighborhood affect their behavior (Reid 168). This can be centralized to how the caregiver meets the needs of the child, if they are well met then this tends to have a good behavior and is less likely to bully out of frustrations (Reid 168). Other aspects like freedom, cultural values, economy and wars also shape the behavior of the child.

More often than not children play together and in the process one might accidentally kick or step on their peer or harmlessly utter some teasing words. Out of these petty events one may get a nickname or a label that castigates his or her behavior. For instance, a child is nicknamed “tiger” in his boxing club by peers may tend to bullying to fit into the context of that label.

According to Cooley, human beings especially children see themselves in the eyes of others to a point of incorporating those perceptions into our lives. Teenagers will go to a great extend to look like or behave according to self-image that fits those views (Reid 170). If a boy is perceived as a strong boy they will incline towards bullying to fit into this perceived strength.

This can also be explained by Freud’s developmental stages where the child fixates in any of these stages. Fixation in the phallic stage and latency stage can lead to violent behaviors in children and thus parents should ensure smooth transitions in these stages.

Crothers, L. & Levinson, E. “Assessment of Bullying: A Review of Methods and Instruments.” Journal of Counseling & Development 82. 4 (2004): 496-503. Print.

Limber, S. & Maury M. Nation Bullying Among Children and Youth . 1997. Web.

Loseke, D. Through a Sociological Lens: The Complexities of Family Violence . p35 -48. Web.

Reid, T. Sociological Theories of Criminal Behavior II: The Social-Process Approach -2008 p142-188. Web.

Tritt, C. & Duncan, R. “The Relationship between Childhood Bullying and Young Adult Self-Esteem and Loneliness.” Journal of Humanistic Education & Development 36.1 (1997):1-4. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2019, March 23). Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society. https://ivypanda.com/essays/childhood-bullying/

"Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society." IvyPanda , 23 Mar. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/childhood-bullying/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society'. 23 March.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society." March 23, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/childhood-bullying/.

1. IvyPanda . "Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society." March 23, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/childhood-bullying/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society." March 23, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/childhood-bullying/.

This powerful essay about a painful childhood memory got a student into 14 colleges including Harvard, Stanford, and Princeton

We all have memories from our childhood that we'd likely rather forget. Sometimes it's those very same painful life lessons that have the most lasting impact on your world view.

Recent Harvard University graduate Soa Andrian used one of her childhood memories as a jumping-off point on her college admissions essay.

She told the story of a visit to Antananarivo, Madagascar, where she has relatives, and of an impending incident of bullying. A deeply personal story, at first she was going to write about something a little less private.

"My original common app essay was about a poster presentation I made at a summer program and what I learned about being less shy," Andrian said via email to Business Insider. "But it felt disingenuous. I think it felt disingenuous because I wrote what I thought admissions committees would want to see — a little humility by sharing an insecurity, but a small one that ultimately was easy to overcome."

Ultimately, she wrote about her more personal experience, and it certainly paid off. In addition to Harvard, she gained acceptances to Brown University, UChicago, Columbia, The University of Florida, Johns Hopkins, the University of Miami, MIT, Northwestern, UPenn, Princeton, Rice University, Stanford, and WashU.

Andrian's other impressive stats are included on her Admitsee profile . AdmitSee is an education startup that has 60,000 profiles of students who have been accepted into college with their test scores and other data points for prospective students to browse.

Andrian graciously shared her admissions essay with Business Insider, which we've reprinted verbatim below.

Four boys stood above me on a pile of garbage. Their words, "Bota, bota, matava" — "chubby", "fatty" suffocated me:

A familiar sensation of frustration and hurt gripped me. Looking for defense I only saw a cinderblock at my feet, impossible for my eight year old body to heave, so, I screamed in English:

"You are just jealous that you are poor and I am American!"

As the words flew out of my mouth, I knew I was wrong — there was no sense of triumphant satisfaction. I abruptly turned and ran into the refuge of my aunt's home.

Upon finishing a tearful narrative to my aunt and father, I preferred the comfort of the former's arms. I avoided my father's disappointment: I knew as well as he did, that I was not the victim.

Later, my hysteria subdued and guilt temporarily forgotten, I ventured outside to explore the crevices of Antananarivo. The boys were still playing atop the rubbish, then seeing me, scrambled off their mountain and ran in the opposite direction.

It's okay, I thought, I wouldn't be a fan of me either.

As I began walking up the street, I heard shouts:

"Wait, wait!"

The boys caught up to me and proudly waved hundred ariary bills in my face. In their broken English, they said in earnest and without malice,

"Look! We are not poor! We have money! We are Amreekan too!"

I agreed they were right and smiled sadly: one US dollar was the equivalent to seven thousand Malagasy ariary.

I was made sharply aware of what separated me from these children: oceans, experience, money. Politics, ignorance, the apathy of millions. Ironically, it was also the first time I belonged to my "motherland". I could share in the simple joy of relishing what "is", be proud of the sense of resourcefulness engendered by scarcity.

This memory has woven itself into my philosophy and my dreams. The very personal knowledge that millions live in a way such that electric toothbrushes are an unfathomable luxury (my cousin, Aina), has given me the following personal rules:

• Education is an opportunity, not a burden;
• You always have enough to share.

While I may not be certain of my future, I know for certain that I want to serve. I realize that service is as important an aspect of education as is academic work. I know this passion will follow me throughout my life and manifest itself in my actions at Harvard. This memory is a mandate to serve indiscriminately and without prejudice towards those I work with. I am all the more willing to cooperate to bring improvement to the community within the College and beyond the campus. I can bring innovation in problem solving born out of the deep desire to help others. I work for these boys, for all the proud Malagasy (and even those who are not proud to be Malagasy), and the children who cherish "what is" instead of mourning "what could be".

Watch: Asian-American groups are saying that affirmative action hurts their chances to get into Ivy League schools

• Main content

Bullying in Childhood: Consequences and Resiliency Factors

Bullied kids are prone to distress and self-harm—but family support helps..

Posted November 13, 2020 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

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Bullying can be defined in many different ways. In general, it refers to systematically harassing, harming, or humiliating someone who is weaker, younger, or lower in status. It ranges from almost invisible little acts of deniable meanness—like turning a back on someone, excluding them from a game, or pretending not to hear them—to committing serious acts of humiliation or abuse that prove fatal. Cyberbullying has become particularly worrisome, and has been blamed for some shocking tragedies, as children and teenagers use the anonymity or distance of social media to gang up on vulnerable classmates and others.

In The Origins of You , Jay Belsky, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, and Richie Poulton report on their bullying research, based on methodical longitudinal research with over four thousand families. They were interested in bullying as an example of the importance of peers in children’s and adolescents’ development.

Their findings are disturbing, although intuitively sensible. They show that children who are bullied during primary school have more emotional and behavioral problems than kids not bullied. Those who are bullied have a harder time establishing and maintaining friendships, and doing well at school. The authors write, “Bullying can be part of a downward spiral of developmental functioning, cascading to influence many aspects of development.”

The researchers found that one of the terrible consequences of being bullied is a tendency to self-harm . Bullying is also associated with high levels of distress, and with obesity. The more a child was bullied, and the more serious the bullying was, the greater the degree of self-harm, distress, and obesity.

The good news in this research is that parents can make an important difference: supportive family relationships can act as protective factors, increasing a child’s resilience , and reducing the likelihood of harmful consequences. Belsky and colleagues found that bullied children did better than expected if they had a mother who was warm, siblings who were close and supportive, and a positive family atmosphere. This was true along a continuum: the warmer the mother, the closer the siblings, and the more positive the family atmosphere, the more resilient the bullied child.

These findings highlight the importance of including families in intervention programs aimed at reducing bullying, or alleviating its effects. They also highlight the double danger experienced by children who are both bullied, and also live in unsupportive family situations. Belsky and colleagues close their chapter on bullying by warning against pitting peer influences against the influence of parenting : parenting works in tandem with peer influences, each affecting a given child’s vulnerability and resilience.

What You Can Do to Increase Your Child’s Resistance to Bullying Effects

• Be warm, loving, and responsive. Parental warmth makes a big difference. Kids who experience a kind and caring parent are less likely to experience the harmful consequences of bullying.
• Create a positive home atmosphere. A family where the emphasis is on love, respect, empathy, friendship -building, and community is an important protection against the problems associated with bullying.
• Encourage sibling connections . Help your kids learn to be respectfully assertive with each other, and to deal constructively with any conflicts they experience. Support them in being kind, compassionate, and understanding with each other.
• Welcome your friends and extended family, and your child’s friends, into your home . A strong network of social support is a good resiliency factor for all problems, including bullying.
• Keep the communication lines open. Kids can be embarrassed or confused about being bullied. Reassure your child you’re available to talk, and look for opportunities to do that. Listen respectfully even to their most trivial worries; that way they’ll trust you to take it seriously if they have something bigger going on.
• Get help. As with all other serious problems, if you’re concerned your child is being bullied, and your efforts don’t lead to change, think about getting professional help. The earlier you and your child get the help you need, the likelier you are to have a happy outcome.

What Your Child Can Do to Avoid Being Bullied

• Build friendships . The stronger your child’s social network , the less vulnerable they are to bullies.
• Buddy up . A child on their own is a likelier target for a bully.
• Be assertive. Your child can tell the bully to get a life and leave them alone. A bully can sometimes be surprised or shamed into better behavior by an assertive pushback.
• Keep a sense of humor . A bully can be thrown off by an easy grin or a funny remark, if your child is able to think of one on the spur of the moment. You and your child can role-play funny responses to bullies’ nasty remarks and actions.
• Know when to walk away. Bullies can be dangerous, and being picked on is not character-building. Let your child know it’s okay to turn away from or avoid a bully.
• Tell an adult . Because of the power dynamic in bullying, there are many situations where kids can’t solve bullying problems on their own. If your child brings you a bullying story, listen thoughtfully. Don’t blame your child or do anything else to make them feel worse about themselves. Keep the emphasis on the bullying as a problem-solving challenge you’re handling together.

This is part of my blog series based on The Origins of You: How Childhood Shapes Later Life , by Jay Belsky, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, and Richie Poulton.

See also, in this series,

• " Book Review: The Origins of You "
• " Day Care: Less and Later is Better, but Family Matters Most "
• " The Dangers of Marijuana in Adolescence "
• “ Self-Control: Staying Calm, Focused, Present, and Productive "
• “ Say Good Morning to Your Neighbors ”

“ Bullying Prevention ,” by the National Association of School Psychologists

“ Bullying Prevention ,” by the American Federation of Teachers

Roots of Empathy: Changing the World Child by Child , by Mary Gordon

“ Making Caring Common Project ,” by Harvard Graduate School of Education

“ How to Recognize Bullying ,” by the Government of Canada

Dona Matthews, Ph.D. , is a developmental psychologist and the author of four books about children, adolescents and education.

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88 Bullying Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 bullying research papers examples, 🏆 best bullying essay titles, 🎓 simple research topics about bullying, ❓ bullying research questions.

• Family Violence: Adult-Child Sexual Abuse Psychology essay sample: This paper explores the risk and protection factors for child abuse in the light of Macro-system, microsystem, mesosystems; and programs that target the prevention of child abuse.
• Bullying and Suicide Relationship: Data Analysis Psychology essay sample: Bullying is one of the main reasons why teenagers commit suicide. Parents should watch over their children in order to identify and help them fight the effects of bullying.
• The Problem of Bullying in Colleges Psychology essay sample: This research study shows that college-going students are just as likely to be victims or perpetrators or even belong to the victim-perpetrator group of bullying.
• Anti-bullying Program for the School Psychology essay sample: Bullying is a serious problem that must be dealt with immediately. Usually, children develop the idea that bullying is acceptable in pre-school.
• Stuttering Among Schoolchildren: Teaching Interventions Psychology essay sample: Communication speech impairments affect children, adolescents. People with stuttering experience bullying and difficulties in forming relationships from a very young age.
• Bullying Children: The Analysis of Various Examples Psychology essay sample: This discussion provides a detailed analysis of various examples of bullying and some of the evidence-based strategies to prevent the malpractice.
• Bullying and Suicide: Outcomes and Implications Psychology essay sample: Bullying may occur in any society or time. Bulling is part of a wide-ranging pattern of antisocial behavior, with long-term consequences for society.
• Bullying as a Group Process in Childhood Psychology essay sample: The primary purpose of the article is to explore bullying as a network relation founded on the exact nominations for bullying.
• Middle Childhood Through the Prism of Psychological Disorders Psychology essay sample: The paper states that various disorders such as ADHD and ASD in middle childhood can affect an individual's ability to reach success and overcome obstacles.
• Suicide is a Crucial Health Risk among Adolescents Psychology essay sample: Nowadays, suicide is the second most prevalent cause of death among adolescents in the US and worldwide, accounting for about 800,000 lives globally.
• Deviant Behavior: Workplace Bullying Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to explore workplace bullying in terms of conflict and labeling theories to better understand its causes and nature.
• Aggression in Psychology Psychology essay sample: This emotion is difficult to define, and psychologists, judges, and lawyers have been trying to determine what actions should and should not be considered aggressive for a long time.
• Bullying in Adolescents and Social Work Interventions Psychology essay sample: Bullying provokes a number of negative emotions and situations when students need additional help and treatment.
• Moral Development Theory and Bullying Issues Psychology essay sample: The impact of bullying is not easy to predict. Moral development is used to identify the principles and moral values according to which adolescents should treat each other.
• Parenting Styles in Different Cultures Psychology essay sample: To understand the specificities of parents’ behavior that influence their children, it is vital to consider them in the context of selected countries and regions.
• Depression Management in Adolescent Psychology essay sample: Adolescents are men and women in their transitional age from childhood to youth. Their age bracket is from ten to twenty-two.
• Cell Phones and Mental Health Psychology essay sample: Limited use of smartphones, current human companions, makes life easier and enjoyable, while excessive screen time may bring severe mental health consequences.
• Developmental Psychology and a Movie Character Psychology essay sample: This work aims to assess adolescents' psychology by applying relevant concepts and considering some issues with specific examples.
• Bullying Behavior in Children Psychology essay sample: The paper states that contributing factors to bullying behavior are family violence and media content that encourages victimization.
• Cyberbullying in Social Psychology Psychology essay sample: The study aims to determine the prevalence and effects of cyberbullying among teenagers and young adults, as well as explore the most suitable coping strategies.
• Interpersonal Conflicts at Workplace: Types and Resolution Strategies Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to discuss the types of interpersonal conflicts and recommended strategies for effective conflict resolution.
• Narrative Therapy: Patient Case Psychology essay sample: The narrative approach would be the most useful for the described case conceptualization, as it allows the person to separate the context and see these stories as situational.
• Bullying: Collaborating with Parents to Increase Proactive Bystander Message Psychology essay sample: Bullying could potentially lead to anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress. These symptoms could be typical also to the bystanders.
• Childhood Trauma: Causes, Effects, and Preventive Measures Psychology essay sample: It is salient to understand the causative factors and the effects of childhood trauma while also highlighting applicable preventive measures.
• The Best Solution to Predict Depression Because of Bullying Psychology essay sample: This paper examines interventions to prove that the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program is the most effective solution for predicting depression provoked by bullying.
• The Long-Term Effects of Bullying: Understanding the Impact on Mental Health
• Bullying in the Digital Age: Problem Statement
• Empowering Students to Speak Up: Strategies for Reporting Bullying Incidents
• Bullying in the Workplace: Recognizing and Addressing Adult Bullying
• The Role of Bystanders in Bullying Situations: How to Be an Active Ally
• Bullying and Self-Esteem: Rebuilding Confidence After Being Bullied
• Exploring the Link Between Bullying and Substance Abuse in Adolescents
• Debunking Myths About Bullying: Separating Fact from Fiction
• Nurse Bullying Study: Ethical Perspectives The research question is: how does the medical community address the psychological effects of nurse bullying in the workplace in the context of ethical obstacles?
• Bullying Prevention Programs That Work: Case Studies and Success Stories
• Understanding the Psychology of a Bully: What Drives the Behavior?
• Bullying and Academic Performance: Impact
• The Legal Ramifications of Bullying: Navigating Anti-Bullying Legislation
• Parental Involvement in Bullying Prevention
• Bullying in the LGBTQ+ Community: Addressing Unique Challenges and Solutions
• Healing from Bullying Trauma: Coping Strategies and Resources for Recovery
• Understanding the Impact of Workplace Bullying on Mental Health
• From Victim to Victor: Inspirational Stories of Overcoming Bullying
• Spotting the Signs of Workplace Bullying: What to Look Out For
• Cyberbullying and LGBTQ+ Youth: Navigating the Unique Challenges and Solutions
• Addressing Friend Bullying: Tips for Parents and Caregivers
• How to Address Workplace Bullying: A Step-by-Step Guide for Employees
• Exploring the Legal Aspects of Workplace Bullying: Know Your Rights
• The Impact of Cyberbullying on Mental Health: Understanding the Long-Term Effects
• The Role of HR in Preventing and Addressing Workplace Bullying
• Empathy in the Digital Age: Fostering Compassion to Combat Cyberbullying
• The Impact of Workplace Violence on Nurses: Nurse Bullying Statistics Wondering about the impact of workplace violence on nurses? Read this essay to learn about economic and psychological effects of workplace bullying.
• Real Stories: Overcoming Workplace Bullying and Restoring Confidence
• Understanding the Impact of Friend Bullying on Mental Health
• The Long-Term Effects of Workplace Bullying on Employee Productivity
• The Impact of Bullying on Mental Health: Understanding the Long-Term Effects
• The Long-Term Effects of Friend Bullying on Self-Esteem
• How to Combat Bullying: An Action Plan
• Confronting the Bully: Tips for Standing Up to Workplace Aggression
• Building a Culture of Respect: Preventing Workplace Bullying Through Leadership
• Spotlight on Cyberbullying Laws: A State-by-State Comparison
• Breaking the Silence: Encouraging Open Communication About Workplace Bullying
• Healing from Workplace Bullying: Strategies for Moving Forward and Thriving in Your Career
• Exploring the Role of Social Media in Friend Bullying
• The Importance of Open Communication in Combating Friend Bullying
• Understanding the Dynamics of Family Bullying: What It Looks Like and Why It Happens
• The Long-Term Effects of Sibling Bullying on Mental Health
• When Bullying Goes Unnoticed: Signs That a Child Is Being Bullied by a Family Member
• How Social Media Exacerbates the Problem of Bullying?
• How Bullying Affects Student Achievement?
• How to Support Your Child if He Is Bullied?
• What Drives Psychology of Cyberbullies?
• How to Address and Prevent Cyberbullying in the Workplace?
• How to Recognize and Address Parental Bullying Within the Family?
• How to Protect Yourself from Bullying Within Your Own Family?
• How Teaching Kids to Address Bullying Within the Family?
• What The Impact of Social Bullying on Mental Health?
• What Is Mean Debunking Myths About Social Bullying?
• What The Legal Implications of Social Bullying?
• What The Role of Educators in Combating Social Bullying?
• How Social Bullying Differs from Other Forms of Harassment and Abuse?
• How Understand Navigating the Complexities of Cyberbullying Laws?
• Is It Possible to Avoid Bullying?
• How to Recognize if Your Child is Being Bullied?
• What Drives Perpetrators to Target Others on Online Bullying?
• How Witnesses Can Help Combat Online Bullying?
• How Verbal Abuse in Relationships Can Leave a Lasting Impact?
• How Community Efforts to Combat Online Bullying?

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How parents, teachers, and kids can take action to prevent bullying

Preventing and stopping bullying involves a commitment to creating a safe environment where children can thrive, socially and academically, without being afraid.

• Schools and Classrooms

Introduction

Bullying is aggressive behavior that is intentional and involves an imbalance of power or strength. It is a repeated behavior and can be physical, verbal, or relational. While boys may bully others using more physical means, girls often bully others by social exclusion. Bullying has been part of school, and even workplaces, for years. More recently, though, technology and social media have created a new venue for bullying that has expanded its reach. Cyberbullying is bullying that happens online and via cell phones. Websites like YouTube, Instagram, and Snapchat allow kids to send hurtful, ongoing messages to other children 24 hours a day. Some sites, such as Instagram, allow messages to be left anonymously.

Preventing and stopping bullying involves a commitment to creating a safe environment where children can thrive, socially and academically, without being afraid. APA recommends that teachers, parents, and students take the following actions to address bullying.

Teachers and school administrators

Be knowledgeable and observant, involve students and parents.

Students and parents need to be a part of the solution and involved in safety teams and antibullying task forces. Students can inform adults about what is really going on and also teach adults about new technologies that kids are using to bully. Parents, teachers, and school administrators can help students engage in positive behavior and teach them skills so that they know how to intervene when bullying occurs. Older students can serve as mentors and inform younger students about safe practices on the internet.

Set positive expectations about behavior for students and adults

Schools and classrooms must offer students a safe learning environment. Teachers and coaches need to explicitly remind students that bullying is not accepted in school and such behaviors will have consequences. Creating an antibullying document and having both the student and the parents/guardians sign and return it to the school office helps students understand the seriousness of bullying. Also, for students who have a hard time adjusting or finding friends, teachers and administrators can facilitate friendships or provide “jobs” for the student to do during lunch and recess so that children do not feel isolated or in danger of becoming targets for bullying.

Parents of kids being bullied

Observe your child for signs they might be being bullied, teach your child how to handle being bullied, set boundaries with technology.

Educate your children and yourself about cyberbullying and teach your children not to respond or forward threatening emails. “Friend” your child on Facebook and other social media platforms and set up proper filters on your child’s computer. Make the family computer the only computer for children, and have it in a public place in the home where it is visible and can be monitored. If you decide to give your child a cell phone think carefully before allowing them to have a camera option. Let them know you will be monitoring their text messages. As a parent, you can insist that phones are stored in a public area, such as the kitchen, by a certain time at night to eliminate nighttime bullying and inappropriate messaging. Parents should report bullying to the school, and follow up with a letter that is copied to the school superintendent if their initial inquiry receives no response.

Parents should report all threatening messages to the police and should document any text messages, emails, or posts on websites.

Parents of kids engaged in bullying

Stop bullying before it starts.

Educate your children about bullying. It is possible that your child is having trouble reading social signs and does not know what they are doing is hurtful. Remind your child that bullying others can have legal consequences.

Make your home “bully free”

Children learn behavior through their parents. Being exposed to aggressive behavior or an overly strict environment at home makes kids more prone to bully at school. Parents/caregivers should model positive examples for your child in your relationships with other people and with them.

Look for self esteem issues

Children with low self-esteem often bully to feel better about themselves. Even children who seem popular and well-liked can have mean tendencies. Mean behavior should be addressed by parents and disciplined.

Report bullying and cyberbullying

It is important for students to report any bullying to a parent or an adult they trust. Often kids don’t report cyberbullying because they fear their parents will take away their phone or computer. Parents will support their child’s reports of bullying and not take away their phones as a consequence. It is important for kids to remember that bullying is wrong and should be handled by an adult.

Don’t bully back

It may be difficult to not bully back, but as the saying goes, two wrongs don’t make a right. Try not to show anger or tears. Either calmly tell the bully to stop bullying or simply walk away.

Avoid being alone

Whenever possible, avoid situations where there are no other students or teachers. Try to go to the bathroom with a friend or eat lunch in a group. When riding the bus, sit near the front. If you know a student who likes to bully others is in an area where you normally walk to lunch or class, try to use alternative hallway routes.

Remember, report bullying of yourself or other students to your teacher, coach, principal, and/or parent.

Students who experience bullying may feel overwhelmed, depressed, or anxious. If your child or student is having trouble at school or with friends as a result of bullying, a mental health professional, such as a psychologist, can help your child develop resilience and confidence. This will enable your child to be more successful both socially and academically.

Additional resources

• Net Cetera: Chatting with kids about being online
• Stop Bullying Now Campaign
• APA Q and A with Dr. Susan Swearer
• Bullying Research Network

Special thanks to Rosalind Dorlen, PsyD, independent practice, New Jersey Elaine Ducharme, PhD, independent practice, Connecticut Susan M. Swearer, PhD, associate professor of school psychology and licensed psychologist; codirector, Nebraska Internship Consortium in Professional Psychology; and secretary, APA Division 16 (School Psychology)

Recommended Reading

• Cyberbullying: What is it and how can you stop it?
• Stop office bullying

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Bullying in Early Childhood

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October has been designated Bullying Prevention Awareness Month by the PACER Center  (Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights)  since 2006. The movement has grown to include federal efforts highlighted on  www.stopbullying.gov .

While much attention is paid to bullying among older children – both in the media and in research - relatively little focus has been paid to bullying in early childhood. In part, this may be due to a view that behaviors thought of as bullying in older children are "part of growing up." This is certainly part of it. However, measuring bullying is challenging to do among young children. They tend to over-report behaviors as bullying that most definitions would not include.

Defining bullying

Bullying has three elements: it is an act is aggressive and intended to do harm; these are repeated over time; and, they occurs within the context of power imbalance. In other words, it is a series of acts intended to hurt another child, committed by a child to gain or to assert greater power over another child. The definition is important because it distinguishes bullying from rough and tumble play and other aspects of young children’s developing social skills.  This article explores the difference between rough and tumble play and fighting , for example. Bullying can be physically aggressive, but can also be verbal (name calling), or social (social exclusion) in nature.

Bully, victim, and bully-victim

Researchers who study bullying use specific terms to describe the roles children tend to fill in social settings. The bully/aggressor is the dominant child acting against one or more other children. The victim is the clear target of the bullying, and the bully-victim tends to of fill both roles at different times, with different peers. Of course, there are some children not involved in bullying at all, and some how are not directly involved in the bullying act (children who comfort a victim after an act, for example).

How common is bullying in early childhood?

Studies that quantify how many children are bullies, victims, or bullying victims are rare.  Data from one study of children’s experience with violence  showed that 20.4% of children ages 2-5 had experienced physical bullying in their lifetime and 14.6% had been teased (verbally bullied). Vlachou’s paper provides some estimates suggesting that bullying is more common among young children than school aged children. They report one study of 4-year-olds showing 25% of children as bullies and 22% as victims, and 2% as victim/bully. In other words, just about half of children studied were involved in bullying – as aggressor or victim. By contrast, data for older school-age children, show 7-15% as bullies, 10% as victims and up to 10% as bully-victims. The limited data also suggest that the roles children assume in preschool are less stable than they are among older children – so a child who is a bully today may be a bully-victim or victim later in the year.

Changes in bullying with age

While the prevalence data show more bullying occurring among younger children, the data also show less bullying, overall, as children grow older. This general decline in bullying occurs even while the nature of bullying changes from more overt, physically aggressive behaviors to other forms of bullying, such as verbal attacks and social exclusion, both of which become more common as children grow older. The limited data that exist also suggest, though, that even as young as 4-years, there are sex differences in the nature of bullying, with boys more likely than girls to use physical aggression in their bullying.

Bully and victims in groups

While early research suggested a “type” of child who was a bully and who was a victim, recent research suggests much more diversity in the social and emotional experiences of bullies and victims of bullies. This diversity is only beginning to be teased apart for older children, and not yet undertaken among younger children. One finding that emerges in studies of bullying among preschool-aged children is that bullies tend to be well embedded in social networks (that is, they have many friends), though they also tend to associate with other bullies. There is an interesting gender difference – girls who are bullies are more likely to be socially isolated. It seems like bullying is more acceptable for boys than it is for girls. By contrast, victims of bullies tend to have fewer reciprocal friends in the social group. Whether victims’ social isolation is the result of bullying or a contribution to it is unclear - having few friends makes children vulnerable to a bully, but bullies tend to enjoy higher status among their peers than do victims.

Bullying and the setting

It may not be surprising that bullying activity occurs in some parts of the child’s setting but not others. Research shows that aggression is more common in areas that include activity spaces (e.g., block corner, water table) and playgrounds. Aggressiveness is also more common in spaces that are open and less clearly defined, possibly because the expectations for children activity is less defined.

Where is bullying coming from, and what can I do about it?

The general consensus among researchers is that bullying is in part driven by children’s developing social skills and behavior and emotion regulation skills. These skills are very fluid among young children, with the result being a range of challenging behaviors, which may include bullying. As children build social and regulatory skills, challenging behaviors and bullying tend to decline.  This research paper  examined predictors of bullying or being victimized by bullying. The broadest finding is that children who bully, and children who tend to be victims, score on the extremes using measures of behavior problems. Bullies score extreme on externally – acting outwardly in extreme ways, while victims score high on internalizing, such as withdrawal and passivity. Bully-victims score high on both. In short – all have poor social and behavioral skills. So programs that focus on building children’s social skills are often considered to be one broad bullying prevention measure.

Additional Resources:

• In addition to the Guidance Matters article mentioned above,  this compilation of teacher competencies  to support children’s positive behavior development may be of interest.  This report  provides a deeper research review of these same ideas.
• The Bernese Program against Victimization (Be-Prox)  is one evidence-based model for kindergarten teachers and the  Olweus Bullying Prevention Program  is one model used for older children

Kyle Snow is the former Director, Center for Applied Research at NAEYC

View the discussion thread.

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Effects of Bullying

Bullying can affect everyone—those who are bullied, those who bully, and those who witness bullying. Bullying is linked to many negative outcomes including impacts on mental health, substance use, and suicide. It is important to talk to kids to determine whether bullying—or something else—is a concern.

Kids Who are Bullied

Kids who are bullied can experience negative physical, social, emotional, academic, and mental health issues. Kids who are bullied are more likely to experience:

• Depression and anxiety, increased feelings of sadness and loneliness, changes in sleep and eating patterns, and loss of interest in activities they used to enjoy. These issues may persist into adulthood.
• Health complaints
• Decreased academic achievement—GPA and standardized test scores—and school participation. They are more likely to miss, skip, or drop out of school.

A very small number of bullied children might retaliate through extremely violent measures. In 12 of 15 school shooting cases in the 1990s, the shooters had a history of being bullied.

Kids Who Bully Others

Kids who bully others can also engage in violent and other risky behaviors into adulthood. Kids who bully are more likely to:

• Abuse alcohol and other drugs in adolescence and as adults
• Get into fights, vandalize property, and drop out of school
• Engage in early sexual activity
• Have criminal convictions and traffic citations as adults 
• Be abusive toward their romantic partners, spouses, or children as adults

Kids who witness bullying are more likely to:

• Have increased use of tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs
• Have increased mental health problems, including depression and anxiety
• Miss or skip school

The Relationship between Bullying and Suicide

Media reports often link bullying with suicide. However, most youth who are bullied do not have thoughts of suicide or engage in suicidal behaviors. 

Although kids who are bullied are at risk of suicide, bullying alone is not the cause. Many issues contribute to suicide risk, including depression, problems at home, and trauma history. Additionally, specific groups have an increased risk of suicide, including American Indian and Alaskan Native, Asian American, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. This risk can be increased further when these kids are not supported by parents, peers, and schools. Bullying can make an unsupportive situation worse.

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• About Youth Violence
• Risk and Protective Factors
• School-Associated Violent Death Study
• Youth Violence Prevention Centers

About Bullying

• Bullying is a form of youth violence and an adverse childhood experience (ACE).
• Bullying is widespread in the U.S., but bullying is preventable.

What is bullying?

CDC defines bullying as any unwanted aggressive behavior(s) by another youth or group of youths, who are not siblings or current dating partners, that involves an observed or perceived power imbalance, and is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to be repeated. Bullying may inflict harm or distress on the targeted youth including physical, psychological, social, or educational harm. 1 Common types of bullying include:

• Physical such as hitting, kicking, and tripping.
• Verbal including name-calling and teasing.
• Relational or social such as spreading rumors and leaving out of the group.
• Damage to victim's property.

Bullying can also occur through technology, which is called electronic bullying or cyberbullying. 1 A young person can be a perpetrator, a victim, or both (also known as "bully/victim").

For more information about bullying definitions, please see Bullying Surveillance Among Youths: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements, Version 1 .

Quick facts and stats

Bullying is widespread in the United States. Bullying negatively impacts all youth involved including those who are bullied, those who bully others, and those who witness bullying, known as bystanders.

• Bullying is common . About 1 in 5 high school students reported being bullied on school property. More than 1 in 6 high school students reported being bullied electronically in the last year. 2
• Some youth experience bullying more than others . Nearly 40% of high school students who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual and about 33% of those who were not sure of their sexual identity experienced bullying at school or electronically in the last year, compared to 22% of heterosexual high school students. About 30% of female high school students experienced bullying at school or electronically in the last year, compared to about 19% of males. Nearly 29% of white high school students experienced bullying at school or electronically in the last year compared to about 19% of Hispanic and 18% of Black high school students. 2
• Reports of bullying are highest in middle schools (28%) followed by high schools (16%), combined schools (12%), and primary schools (9%).
• Reports of cyberbullying are highest in middle schools (33%) followed by high schools (30%), combined schools (20%), and primary schools (5%). 3

Bullying can result in physical injury, social and emotional distress, self-harm, and even death. It also increases the risk for depression, anxiety, sleep difficulties, lower academic achievement, and dropping out of school. Youth who bully others are at increased risk for substance misuse, academic problems, and experiencing violence later in adolescence and adulthood. 4 Youth who bully others and are bullied themselves suffer the most serious consequences and are at greater risk for mental health and behavioral problems.

Bullying is preventable. There are many factors that may increase or decrease the risk for perpetrating or experiencing bullying. To prevent bullying, we must understand and address the factors that put people at risk for or protect them from violence . CDC developed, Youth Violence Prevention Resource for Action , to help communities take advantage of the best available evidence to prevent youth violence. 5 This resource is also available in Spanish and can be used as a tool in efforts to impact individual behaviors as well as the relationship, family, school, community, and societal risk and protective factors for violence. The approaches in this resource, particularly universal school-based programs that strengthen youths' skills and modify the physical and social environment, have been shown to reduce violence and bullying or key risk factors.

Different types of violence are connected and often share root causes. Bullying is linked to other forms of violence through shared risk and protective factors. Addressing and preventing one form of violence may have an impact on preventing other forms of violence.

• Gladden RM, Vivolo-Kantor AM, Hamburger ME, Lumpkin CD. Bullying surveillance among youths: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0. Atlanta, GA; National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education; 2013. Available from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/bullying-definitionsfinal-a.pdf.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report–Surveillance Summaries 2020; 69(SS1). Available from https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/2019/su6901-H.pdf
• Diliberti, M., Jackson, M., Correa, S., and Padgett, Z. (2019). Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings From the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2017–18 (NCES 2019-061). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch
• Farrington D, Baldry A. Individual risk factors for school bullying. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research 2010; 2(1):4-16. Available from https://doi.org/10.5042/jacpr.2010.0001 .
• David-Ferdon, C., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Dahlberg, L. L., Marshall, K. J., Rainford, N. & Hall, J. E. (2016). Youth Violence Prevention Resource for Action: A Compilation of the Best Available Evidence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Note: The title of this document was changed in July 2023 to align with other Prevention Resources being developed by CDC's Injury Center. The document was previously cited as "A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors."

Youth Violence Prevention

Youth violence affects thousands of young people each day, and in turn, their families, schools, and communities. CDC works to understand the problem of violence experienced by youth and prevent it.

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• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1165-6753 Richard Armitage
• Division of Epidemiology and Public Health , University of Nottingham , Nottingham , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Richard Armitage; Richard.Armitage4{at}nottingham.ac.uk

Bullying in childhood is a major public health problem that increases the risk of poor health, social and educational outcomes in childhood and adolescence. These consequences are felt by all those involved in bullying (bullies, victims and bully–victims) and are now recognised to propagate deep into adulthood. Cyberbullying is a relatively new type of bullying in addition to the traditional forms of direct physical, direct verbal and indirect bullying. Children who are perceived as being ‘different’ in any way are at greater risk of victimisation, with physical appearance being the most frequent trigger of childhood bullying. Globally, one in three children have been bullied in the past 30 days, although there is substantial regional variation in the prevalence and type of bullying experienced. The consequences of childhood bullying can be categorised into three broad categories: educational consequences during childhood, health consequences during childhood and all consequences during adulthood. Many dose–response relationships exist between the frequency and intensity of bullying experienced and the severity of negative health consequence reported. The majority of victims of cyberbullying are also victims of traditional bullying, meaning cyberbullying creates very few additional victims. Overall, adverse mental health outcomes due to bullying in childhood most severely impact on bully–victims. Bullying prevention is vital for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, with whole-school cooperative learning interventions having the strongest evidence base for successful outcomes. Clear management and referral pathways for health professionals dealing with childhood bullying are lacking in both primary and secondary care, although specialist services are available locally and online.

• adolescent health
• child psychiatry

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000939

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Key messages

Bullying in childhood is a global public health problem that impacts on child, adolescent and adult health.

Bullying exists in its traditional, sexual and cyber forms, all of which impact on the physical, mental and social health of victims, bullies and bully–victims.

Children perceived as ‘different’ in any way are at greater risk of victimisation.

Bullying is extremely prevalent: one in three children globally has been victimised in the preceding month.

Existing bullying prevention interventions are rarely evidence-based and alternative approaches are urgently needed.

Introduction

Bullying in childhood has been classified by the WHO as a major public health problem 1 and for decades has been known to increase the risk of poor health, social and educational outcomes in childhood and adolescence. 2 Characterised by repeated victimisation within a power-imbalanced relationship, bullying encompasses a wide range of types, frequencies and aggression levels, ranging from teasing and name calling to physical, verbal and social abuse. 3 The dynamics within such relationships become consolidated with repeated and sustained episodes of bullying: bullies accrue compounding power while victims are stripped of their own and become progressively less able to defend themselves and increasingly vulnerable to psychological distress. 4

However, only in the last decade have prospective studies been published that reveal the far-reaching effects of childhood bullying that extend into adulthood. There is now substantial evidence that being bullied as a child or adolescent has a causal relationship to the development of mental health issues beyond the early years of life, including depression, anxiety and suicidality. 5 As such, addressing the global public health problem of bullying in childhood has received increasing international attention and is vital for the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4. 6 The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child health and education has focused further attention on bullying in its digital form, so-called ‘cyberbullying’, the prevalence of which is feared to be increasing. 7

Types of bullying

Participants in childhood bullying take up one of three roles: the victim, the bully (or perpetrator) or the bully–victim (who is both a perpetrator and a victim of bullying). 5 Victims and bullies either belong to the same peer group (peer bullying) or the same family unit (sibling bullying), 8 although bullying frequently occurs in multiple settings simultaneously, such as at school (peer bullying) and in the home (sibling bullying), representing a ubiquitous ecology of bullying that permeates the child’s life.

Three main types of bullying are observed, the typical characteristics of which are illustrated in table 1 .

• View inline

Typical characteristics of the main types of childhood bullying

While traditional bullying has been recognised and studied for many decades 9 and is often accepted as an inevitable aspect of a normal childhood, 3 cyberbullying represents a relatively new phenomenon in which childhood bullying now takes place through digital modalities. The widespread uptake of electronic devices has reached almost complete saturation among adolescents in high-income countries, with users checking their devices hundreds of times and for hours each day. 10 While providing beneficial access to information and social support, this large and growing online exposure of young people renders them vulnerable to exploitation, gambling, and grooming by criminals and sexual abusers, as well as cyberbullying. 11 Due to the increased potential for large audiences, anonymous attacks and the permanence of posted messages, coupled with lower levels of direct feedback, reduced time and space limits, and decreased adult supervision, it is feared that cyberbullying may pose a greater threat to child and adolescent health than traditional bullying modalities. 12

Factors that influence bullying

Two large-scale international surveys regularly conducted by the WHO—the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) 13 and the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study 14 —provide data from 144 countries and territories in all regions of the world. These data identify specific factors that strongly influence the type, frequency and severity of bullying experienced by children and adolescents globally. These factors, which are briefly described in table 2 , suggest that children who are perceived as being ‘different’ in any way are at greater risk of victimisation.

Summary of factors that influence child and adolescent bullying 15

Prevalence of bullying

A 2019 report from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) 15 examined the global prevalence of bullying in childhood and adolescence using data from the GSHS and HBSC studies along with addition data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study 16 and the Programme for International Students Assessment. 17 It found that almost one in three (32%) children globally has been the victim of bullying on one or more days in the preceding month, and that 1 in 13 (7.3%) has been bullied on six or more days over the same period. 15 However, there is substantial regional variation in the prevalence of bullying across the world, ranging from 22.8% of children being victimised in Central America, through 25.0% and 31.7% in Europe and North America, respectively, to 48.2% in sub-Saharan Africa. There is also significant geographical variation in the type of bullying reported, with direct physical and sexual bullying being dominant in low-income and middle-income countries, and indirect bullying being the most frequent type in high-income regions. Nevertheless, bullying is a sizeable public health problem of truly global importance.

Encouragingly, there has been a decrease in the prevalence of bullying in half (50.0%) of countries since 2002, while 31.4% have seen no significant change over this time frame. 15 However, 18.6% of countries have witnessed an increase in childhood bullying, primarily among members of one sex or the other, although in both girls and boys in North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Myanmar, the Philippines, and United Arab Emirates. 15

Since its appearance, cyberbullying has received substantial media attention claiming that the near-ubiquitous uptake of social media among adolescents has induced a tidal wave of online victimisation and triggered multiple high-profile suicides among adolescents after being bullied online. 18 19 However, a recent meta-analysis suggests that cyberbullying is far less prevalent than bullying in its traditional forms, with rates of online victimisation less than half of those offline. 20 The study also found relatively strong correlations between bullying in its traditional and cyber varieties, suggesting victims of online bullying are also likely to be bullied offline, and that that these different forms of victimisation reflect alternative methods of enacting the same perpetrator behaviour. Recent evidence from England also indicates a difference between sexes, with 1 in 20 adolescent girls and 1 in 50 adolescent boys reporting cyberbully victimisation over the previous 2 months. 21

Consequences of bullying

There is a vast range of possible consequences of bullying in childhood, determined by multiple factors including the frequency, severity and type of bullying, the role of the participant (victim, bully or bully–victim) and the timing at which the consequences are observed (during childhood, adolescence or adulthood). The consequences can be grouped into three broad categories: educational consequences during childhood and adolescence, health consequences during childhood and adolescence, and all consequences during adulthood. Each will now be discussed individually.

Educational consequences during childhood and adolescence

Children who are frequently bullied are more likely to feel like an outsider at school, 17 while indirect bullying specifically has been shown to have a negative effect on socialisation and feelings of acceptance among children in schools. 22 Accordingly, a child’s sense of belonging at school increases as bullying decreases. 22 In addition, being bullied can affect continued engagement in education. Compared with those who are not bullied, children who are frequently bullied are nearly twice as likely to regularly skip school and are more likely to want to leave school after finishing secondary education. 16 The effect of frequent bullying on these educational consequences is illustrated in table 3 .

Relationship between being frequently bullied and educational consequences 20

Children who are bullied score lower in tests than those who are not. For example, in 15 Latin American countries, the test scores of bullied children were 2.1% lower in mathematics and 2.5% lower in reading than non-bullied children. 22 Compared with children never or almost never bullied, average learning achievement scores were 2.7% lower in children bullied monthly, and 7.5% lower in children bullied weekly, indicating a dose–response relationship. These findings are globally consistent across both low-income and high-income countries. 17

Health consequences during childhood and adolescence

Numerous meta-analyses, 2 23–26 longitudinal studies 5 27 28 and cross-sectional studies 29–31 have demonstrated strong relationships between childhood bullying and physical, mental and social health outcomes in victims, bullies and bully–victims. Some of these consequences are illustrated in table 4 . Reported physical health outcomes are mostly psychosomatic in nature. Most studies focused on the impacts on victims, although adverse effects on bullies and bully–victims are also recognised. Many studies identified a dose–response relationship between the frequency and intensity of bullying experienced and the severity of negative health consequence reported.

Summary of childhood health consequences of bullying during childhood

While there is significant regional variation, the association between childhood bullying and suicidal ideation and behaviour are recognised globally. 32 Alarmingly, childhood bully victimisation is associated with a risk of mental health problems similar to that experienced by children in public or substitute care. 33 Victimisation in sibling bullying is associated with substantial emotional problems in childhood, including low self-esteem, depression and self-harm, 8 and increases the risk of further victimisation through peer bullying. Overall, adverse mental health outcomes due to bullying in childhood appear to most severely impact on bully–victims, followed by victims and bullies. 34

Nine out of 10 adolescents who report victimisation by cyberbullying are also victims of bullying in its traditional forms, 35 meaning cyberbullying creates very few additional victims, 36 but is another weapon in the bully’s arsenal and has not replaced traditional methods. 37 Cyberbullying victimisation appears to be an independent risk factor for mental health problems only in girls and is not associated with suicidal ideation in either sex. 38 As such, traditional bullying is still the major type of bullying associated with poor mental health outcomes in children and adolescents. 21

Consequences during adulthood

A recent meta-analysis 39 and numerous other prospective longitudinal studies 40 41 that used large, population-based, community samples analysed through quantitative methods suggest that childhood bullying can lead to three main negative outcomes in adulthood for victims, bullies and bully–victims: psychopathology, suicidality and criminality. Some of these consequences are illustrated in table 5 .

Summary of adulthood consequences of bullying during childhood

A strong dose–response relationship exists between frequency of peer victimisation in childhood and adolescence and the risk of adulthood adversities. 39 For example, frequently bullied adolescents are twice as likely to develop depression in early adulthood compared with non-victimised peers, and is seen in both men and women. 41 Startlingly, the effects of this dose–response relationship seems to persist until at least 50 years of age. 33

The impact of childhood bully victimisation on adulthood mental health outcomes is staggering. Approximately 29% of the adulthood depression burden could be attributed to victimisation by peers in adolescence, 41 and bully victimisation by peers is thought to have a greater impact on adult mental health than maltreatment by adults, including sexual and physical abuse. 42 Finally, these consequences reach beyond the realm of health, as childhood bullying victimisation is associated with a lack of social relationships, economic hardship and poor perceived quality of life at age 50. 33

Bullying prevention

Until not long ago, being bullied was considered a normal rite of passage through which children must simply persevere. 3 However, the size and scale of its impact on child health, and later on adulthood health, are now clearly understood and render it a significant public health problem warranting urgent attention. 1 While parental and peer support are known to be protective against victimisation, regardless of global location, cultural norms or socioeconomic status, 43 structured programmes have been deployed at scale to prevent victimisation and its associated problems.

School-based interventions have been shown to significantly reduce bullying behaviour in children and adolescents. Whole-school approaches incorporating multiple disciplines and high levels of staff engagement provide the greatest potential for successful outcomes, while curriculum-based and targeted social skills training are less effective methods that may even worsen victimisation. 44 The most widely adopted approach is the Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme (OBPP), a comprehensive, school-wide programme designed to reduce bullying and achieve better peer relations among school-aged children. 9 However, despite its broad global uptake, meta-analyses of studies examining the effectiveness of the OBPP have shown mixed results across different cultures. 45–47

Cooperative learning, in which teachers increase opportunities for positive peer interaction through carefully structured, group-based learning activities in schools, is an alternative approach to bullying prevention that has recently gained traction and been shown to significantly reduce bullying and its associated emotional problems while enhancing student engagement and educational achievement. 48 Also housed within the educational environment, school-based health centres became popular in the USA in the 1990s and provided medical, mental health, behavioural, dental and vision care for children directly in schools, and have had some positive impacts on mitigating the prevalence and impact of bullying. 49 In the UK, school nurses act as liaisons between primary care and education systems, and are often the first to identify victims of bullying, although their numbers in the UK fell by 30% between 2010 and 2019. 50

Due to the link between sibling and peer bullying, there have been calls for bullying prevention interventions to be developed and made available to start in the home, and for general practitioners and paediatricians to routinely enquire about sibling bullying. 8

While countless cyberbullying prevention programmes, both offline and online, are marketed to educational institutions, only a small proportion have been rigorously evaluated. 51 Furthermore, as cyberbullying rarely induces negative impacts on child health independently, interventions to tackle these effects must also target traditional forms of bullying to have meaningful impact.

Addressing the global public health problem of bullying in childhood and adolescence is vital for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. In recognition of this, UNESCO recently launched its first International Day Against Violence and Bullying at School, an annual event which aims to build global awareness about the problem’s scale, severity and need for collaborative action. 52 Meaningful progress on this problem is urgently needed to increase mental well-being and reduce the burden of mental illness in both children and adults globally. Suggestions for immediate action are briefly described in box 1 .

Actions needed to improve child health through the prevention of bullying

Promote the importance of parental and peer support in the prevention of bully victimisation across families and schools.

Educate health professionals about the consequences of childhood bullying and provide training and resources to allow identification, appropriate management and timely referral of such cases (see further).

Develop and make widely available bullying prevention interventions that tackle sibling bullying in the home.

Create and deploy whole-school cooperative learning approaches to reduce bullying within educational institutions.

Address cyberbullying with evidence-based interventions that also tackle traditional forms of bullying.

Increase awareness of the presentation and impacts of bullying on child health among primary care professionals.

What to do if you suspect childhood bullying

GPs should be prepared to consider bullying as a potential contributory factor in presentations of non-specific physical and mental health complaints from children. While GPs recognise their responsibility to deal with disclosures of childhood bullying and its associated health consequences, they often feel unable to adequately do so due to the constraints of time-pressured primary care consultations, and uncertainty around the specialist services to which such children can be appropriately referred. 53

Clear management and referral pathways for health professionals dealing with childhood bullying are lacking in both primary and secondary care. Local, national and online antibullying organisations, such as Ditch the Label 54 and the Anti-Bullying Alliance, 55 provide free advice for children affected by bullying, and their parents, teachers and health professionals, along with free online certified CPD training for anyone working with children. School nurses continue to act as liaisons between primary care and education systems 56 and should be central to the multidisciplinary management of childhood bullying. Finally, if bullying is considered to be contributory to childhood depression, child and adolescent mental health services, along with primary care practitioners and educational professionals, should work collaboratively to foster effective antibullying approaches. 57

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Contributors RA was the sole contributor to the work.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests No, there are no competing interests.

Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, conduct, reporting or dissemination plans of this research.

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Data availability statement Data sharing is not applicable as no datasets have been generated and/or analysed for this study.

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