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Stress and coping theory across the adult lifespan.

Agus Surachman Agus Surachman Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University
, and David M. Almeida David M. Almeida Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.341
Published online: 30 July 2018

Stress is a broad and complex phenomenon characterized by environmental demands, internal psychological processes, and physical outcomes. The study of stress is multifaceted and commonly divided into three theoretical perspectives: social, psychological, and biological. The social stress perspective emphasizes how stressful life experiences are embedded into social structures and hierarchies. The psychological stress perspective highlights internal processes that occur during stressful situations, such as individual appraisals of the threat and harm of the stressors and of the ways of coping with such stressors. Finally, the biological stress perspective focuses on the acute and long-term physiological changes that result from stressors and their associated psychological appraisals. Stress and coping are inherently intertwined with adult development.

social stress
psychological stress
biological stress
life events
chronic stressors
daily stressors

What Is Stress?

While stress is difficult to define (Contrada, 2011 ), stress researchers tend to share a common interest in a process by which external, environmental, or psychosocial demands surpass an individual’s adaptive capacity and result in biological and psychological changes that have the potential to jeopardize one’s health and well-being (Cohen, Kessler, & Gordon, 1997 ; Contrada, 2011 ). Stress can thus be viewed as a process delineated by three components (Almeida, Piazza, Stawski, & Klein, 2011 ; Cohen et al., 1997 ; Wheaton, 1994 ; Wheaton & Montazer, 2010 ): stressors (external or environmental demands), stress appraisals (the perceived severity of stressors), and distress (affective, behavioral, or biological responses to stressors).

Each of these components is emphasized in one of three theoretical stress perspectives: social, psychological, and biological (Cohen et al., 1997 ). The social stress perspective highlights the way that environmental or external demands precipitate individuals’ stress and how such demands are contingent upon contextual factors or social circumstances (Wheaton & Montazer, 2010 ). The psychological stress perspective focuses on individuals’ appraisals of stressors and the availability of coping resources to manage the overwhelming demands of such stressors (Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 2012 ; Lazarus, 1999 ). Finally, the biological stress perspective highlights how and when physiological systems become activated by stress processes that may risk individuals’ physical health (Cohen et al., 1997 ). The purpose of this article is to describe each of these theoretical perspectives and their relevance to aging research.

Social Stress Perspective

The social stress perspective primarily focuses on the origins of stressful life experiences (Aneshensel, 1992 ; Pearlin, 2009 ). According to the social stress perspective, the experience of stressors is structurally constrained (Wheaton, 1999 ; Pearlin, 2009 ). Exposure to external demands is not random, but rather embedded in an individual’s position in society, social structure, social organizations, roles, and other social constructs (Aneshensel, 1992 ; Wheaton, 1999 ). Two central themes have emerged from the social stress perspective: (a) the differentiation of categories of stressor types and (b) the ways that social structures link to individuals’ experiences of stressors.

Categories of Stressors

Stressors are commonly divided into five categories: life events, chronic stressors, daily stressors, trauma, and nonevents (Wheaton, 1994 , 1999 ; Wheaton & Montazer, 2010 ).

Life Events

Life events , also known as life change events or event stressors , are discrete, observable stressor events that have a clear onset and offset (Wheaton & Montazer, 2010 ). Some examples of life event stressors are the death of a spouse, divorce, and job loss. The modern study of social stress started with the analysis of life events, partly because the easily verifiable nature of these events make it possible to operationalize the concept of stress itself (Wheaton, 1994 ; Wheaton & Montazer, 2010 ). One challenge of this research is identifying a pool of all possible life events that an individual might experience (Aneshensel, 1992 ). For example, items in the stressful life event scales often mix life events with traumas and daily stressors (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ).

Life event representation is an important issue for aging researchers. For example, an early study found an inverse association between age and exposure to life events, with older individuals showing fewer life events than their younger counterparts (Rabkin & Struening, 1976 ). Such a result runs counter to the general assumption that late life is associated with higher stressors due to the development of chronic illnesses and higher levels of bereavement (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ). However, further analysis showed that the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe, 1967 ) that was used by Rabkin and Struening in their study consisted of items that included life events pertaining to younger individuals, such as marriage, birth, divorce, graduation, and job loss (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ). Analysis of life events using items designed for older individuals showed that there was no association between age and exposure to life events (Aldwin, 1990 ). Another study of life events showed that different sociohistorical experiences (e.g., wars, terrorist attacks, and economic downturn) influenced different levels of reported life events, indicating significant period effects (Chukwourji, Nwoke, & Ebere, 2017 ; Elder & Shananhan, 2006 ; Pruchno, Heid, & Wilson-Genderson, 2017 ). More longitudinal studies are needed to disentangle the influence of age and sociohistorical experiences on the reporting of stressful life events.

Chronic Stressors

The concept of chronic stressors , from a social stress perspective, originated from a study of chronic role strain by Pearlin and Schooler ( 1978 ) that articulated the importance of chronic disruptions in important social roles (e.g., marriage, work, and parenting) for health and well-being. Additional work by Wheaton and Montazer ( 2010 ) refined these ideas by providing three defining characteristics of chronic stressors that set them apart from event stressors:

Chronic stressors develop slowly and insidiously as continuous problems related to social roles and the social environment. In addition, chronic stressors may or may not start out as events.

The duration of the stressors from onset to offset is usually longer than the duration of life events.

Chronic stressors include both regular problems and issues related to daily roles and more specific problems, making them less self-limiting than life events.

Although chronic stressors are often tied to social roles, they also can include ambient stressors , which are not role bound, such as time pressure, financial problems, or living in a noisy place (Kershaw et al., 2015 ; Henderson, Child, Moore, Moore, & Kaczynski, 2016 ; Wheaton & Montazer, 2010 ). Table 1 provides a description of seven types of problems that are considered chronic stressors (Wheaton, 1997 ).

Most studies of stress involving older adults focused on chronic stressors (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ; Grzywacz, Almeida, Neupert, & Ettner, 2004 ). However, more research is needed to investigate age differences across adulthood in the prevalence and duration of chronic stressors (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ). Different age groups might have different sources of chronic stressors, which might lead to a similar rate of prevalence and duration of chronic stress (e.g., chronic diseases among older adults, as opposed to economic hardships among younger individuals).

Table 1. Problems Considered as Chronic Stressors

Number	Type of Problem	Examples
1	Threats	Threat of regular physical abuse; threat of living in a high-crime area
2	Demands	Facing levels of expectation or duty that cannot be met with available resources, including overload caused by cross-role and within-role expectations.
3	Structural constraints	The lack of access to opportunity or the needed means to achieve goals or the structured reduction in available alternatives or choices.
4	Under-reward	Being paid less for a job than others with the same qualifications as a result of discrimination based on age, gender, race, or sexual orientation.
5	Complexity	Number of sources of demands, or direct conflict of responsibilities across roles, or constant contingency and instability in living arrangements, or complex content in role responsibilities.
6	Uncertainty	Unwanted waiting for an outcome.
7	Conflict	Regular reenacted (and thus institutionalized) conflict in relationships because of fundamental differences in goals or values, without apparent resolution.

Daily Stressors

Daily stressors , or daily hassles , are often mistaken as chronic stressors (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981 ). The defining characteristics of daily stressors, which separate them from chronic stressors, are their duration and magnitude of severity. DeLongis, Folkman, and Lazarus ( 1988 ) characterized a daily stressor or daily hassle as a short-duration experience of a stressor, such as having an argument with a partner or getting caught in a traffic jam. In addition, Almeida ( 2005 ) defined daily stressors as relatively minor events experienced in day-to-day living. Table 2 provides example questions from the Daily Inventory of Stressful Events (DISE), used by researchers to ascertain information about the frequency of people’s daily stressors.

Compared to life events, daily stressors tend to have a more proximal effect on well-being (Almeida, 2005 ; Almeida et al., 2011 ). Daily stressors produce spikes in psychological distress during a particular day, while life events create prolonged bouts of distress (Almeida, 2005 ; Almeida et al., 2011 ). Daily stress also may have prolonged health effects when piled up across days, which in turn creates persistent irritations, frustrations, and overloads, including chronic physical and psychological distress, chronic conditions and functional impairment, and mortality (Chiang, Turiano, Mroczek, & Miller, 2018 ; Lazarus, 1999 ; Leger, Charles, Ayanian, & Almeida, 2015 ; Pearlin, Menaghan, Lieberman, & Mullan, 1981 ; Piazza, Charles, Sliwinski, Mogle, & Almeida, 2013 ; Zautra, 2003 ).

Such a pileup of stressors (i.e., accumulation of stressor exposure or total number of stressors that an individual experiences) is more problematic if the stressors experienced are less diverse (i.e., low evenness of the type of daily stressors that an individual experiences). Higher levels of stressor exposure that are accompanied by lower levels of stressor diversity indicate a depletion of specific types of resources and may indicate the chronicity of the stressors (see Koffer, Ram, Conroy, Pincus, & Almeida, 2016 , for an extensive discussion of stressor diversity).

The experience of daily stress differs across adulthood. Based on Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) data, a national longitudinal study of health and well-being ( http://midus.wisc.edu ), adults in the United States report at least one stressor on 40% of study days, and multiple stressors on 10% of study days (Almeida, Wethington, & Kessler, 2002 ). In general, studies show that the type and frequency of daily stressors differ by age (Aldwin, Sutton, Chiara, & Spiro, 1996 ; Almeida & Horn, 2004 ; Chiriboga, 1997 ). Mroczek and Almeida ( 2004 ) found that older adults reported fewer daily stressors, measured using DISE (see Table 2 ), and less stressor-related daily negative affect than younger individuals; however, older participants reported a higher level of severity in the reported stressors. Finally, Stawski, Sliwinski, Almeida, and Smyth ( 2008 ) found that there were no age differences in daily stressor-related negative affect.

Stressors sometimes can be categorized as traumatic. Trauma is defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition) as “events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others . . . the person’s response [to the events] involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror” (APA, 1994 , pp. 427–428). However, according to Wheaton and Montazer ( 2010 ), not all traumas happen as events. Physical abuse that happens one time during childhood might fit the definition of a traumatic event. On the other hand, repeated and regular experiences of physical abuse might be better categorized as a chronic traumatic experience. Another important defining characteristic of trauma is its greater severity compared to other types of stressors. As a consequence, traumas might have a greater impact on long-term health and well-being.

Table 2. Questions From the DISE

Number	Stem Questions
1	Did you have an argument or disagreement with anyone since this time yesterday?	Yes	No
2	Since (this time/we spoke) yesterday, did anything happen that you could have argued about but you decided to let pass in order to avoid a disagreement?	Yes	No
3	Since (this time/we spoke) yesterday, did anything happen at work or school (other than what you have already mentioned) that most people would consider stressful?	Yes	No
4	Since (this time/we spoke) yesterday, did anything happen at home (other than what you have already mentioned) that most people would consider stressful?	Yes	No
5	Many people experience discrimination on the basis of such things as race, sex, or age. Did anything like this happen to you since (this time/we spoke) yesterday?	Yes	No
6	Since (this time/we spoke) yesterday, did anything happen to a close friend or relative (other than what you have already mentioned) that turned out to be stressful for you?	Yes	No
7	Did anything else happen to you since (this time/we spoke) yesterday that most people would consider stressful?	Yes	No

Note : A “Yes” answer to each stem question is followed up with questions, including (a) a series of open-ended “probe” questions that ascertain a description of the stressful event, (b) a question regarding the perceived severity of the stressor, and (c) a list of structured primary appraisal questions inquiring about goals and values that were “at risk” because of the event (Almeida et al., 2002 ).

Source : Almeida et al. ( 2002 )

According to Ozer, Best, Lipsey, and Weiss ( 2003 ), most people experience at least one violent or life-threatening situation during their lives. Among older adults, car accidents are the most common source of trauma (Weintraub & Ruskin, 1999 ). In addition, a study by Wheaton, Roszell, and Hall ( 1997 ) indicated that being sent away from home in childhood is the least common trauma (prevalence rate = 3.5%) and the death of a spouse, child, or other loved one is the most common traumatic experience (prevalence rate = 50%). Using the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire (TLEQ) shown in Table 3 , Ogle, Rubin, Berntsen, and Siegler ( 2013 ) found that nondisclosed childhood physical abuse is the least common trauma, and unexpected death, illness, or accident involving a loved one is the most common trauma.

Table 3. The TLEQ and Its Prevalence Among Adults in the United States

Number	Type of Trauma	Mean of Age at Exposure	Lifetime Prevalence (%)
1	Childhood physical abuse	9.51	5.46
2	Witnessed childhood family violence	10.60	10.91
3	Sexual assault	13.33	10.85
4	Warfare or combat exposure	25.49	9.23
5	Physical assault by stranger	26.87	5.95
6	Witnessed an attack or murder	27.34	4.30
7	Nondisclosed	28.01	3.87
8	Non–live birth pregnancy	30.39	31.51
9	Motor vehicle accident	30.67	20.20
10	Other life-threatening accident	31.43	8.82
11	Other life-threatening event	31.82	18.55
12	Death threat	34.55	13.65
13	Stalked	34.70	5.70
14	Robbery	34.85	8.76
15	Physical assault by partner	35.23	7.89
16	Natural disaster	38.52	6.02
17	Unexpected death of a loved one	39.41	53.30
18	Personal illness or accident	43.98	18.39
19	Illness or accident of a loved one	45.84	32.23

Note: n = 3,208.

Sources: Kubany et al. ( 2000 ); Ogle et al. ( 2013 ).

The last category of stressors are nonevents , defined as anticipated events or experiences that do not happen in reality (Gersten, Langer, Eisenberg, & Orzeck, 1974 ; Neugarten, Moore, & Lowe, 1965 ). Normative expectations play an important role in the stressfulness of nonevents such as not getting married by a certain age or not getting an anticipated promotion at a certain career stage (Frost & LeBlanc, 2014 ). Schuth, Posselt, and Breckwoldt ( 1992 ) studied miscarriage in the first trimester as a nonevent stressor. According to Wheaton and Montazer ( 2010 ), nonevents that have no tie to normative timing are more similar to chronic stressors, such as expecting a loan for low-income housing, but not receiving one.

Social Stress and Health: Exposure Versus Vulnerability

There are two hypotheses that researchers draw on to explain how social structures link to stressors and health outcomes: the exposure hypothesis and the vulnerability hypothesis (Aneshensel, 1992 ; Turner, Wheaton, & Lloyd, 1995 ). These competing hypotheses focus on disentangling whether exposure or vulnerability to stressors leads to disease risk. Stressor exposure is the likelihood that a person will be exposed to stressors given her or his social location, such as socioeconomic status (SES) or gender, and individual characteristics, such as personality (Almeida et al., 2011 ). On the other hand, vulnerability to stressors relates to the concept of reactivity , which is the likelihood that one will show physical or psychological reactions to experienced environmental demands or stressors (Almeida, 2005 ; Bolger & Zuckerman, 1995 ; Cacioppo, 1998 ).

There is considerable evidence supporting the idea of differentiated exposure to stressors based on sociodemographic, psychosocial, and situational characteristics as an explanation of why some people are healthier than others. For example, researchers have found that SES (Evans & Kim, 2010 ; Turner et al., 1995 ; Turner & Avison, 2003 ), age (Aldwin, 1990 ; Almeida & Horn, 2004 ; Hamarat et al., 2001 ), personality (Bouchard, 2003 ; Ebstrup, Eplov, Pisinger, & Jørgensen, 2011 ; Penley & Tomaka, 2002 ), and social support (Brewin, MacCarthy, & Frunham, 1989 ; Felsten, 1991 ; Huang, Costeines, Kaufman, & Ayala, 2014 ; Kwag, Martin, Russell, Franke, & Kohut, 2011 ) play critical roles in differentiating individuals’ experiences of stressor exposure.

However, there is also substantial evidence to support the vulnerability hypothesis. For example, a recent analysis of exposure and vulnerability to daily stressors showed that SES was not associated with exposure to daily stressors. However, individuals with lower SES were more reactive to the daily stressors that they experienced (Almeida, Neupert, Banks, & Serido, 2005 ; Grzywacz et al., 2004 ; Surachman, Wardecker, Chow, & Almeida, 2018 ). There are at least four speculated reasons for this (Grzywacz et al., 2004 ; Surachman et al., 2018 ), including (a) the experience of chronic stressors may desensitize individuals with lower SES in their reactions to minor day-to-day stressors; (b) the possibility of gender and racial differences that obscure the systematic variation in exposure to daily stressors; (c) individuals with lower SES may be less reflective and articulate when reporting their daily stressors; and (d) individuals from lower SES may encounter similar types of daily stressors, indicating a low number of daily stressors encountered and lower levels of daily stressor diversity.

Psychological Stress Perspective

The psychological stress perspective focuses on an individual’s perception and evaluation of the potential damage caused by external environmental demands (Cohen et al., 1997 ). The two concepts that are fundamental to the psychological stress perspective are appraisal and coping (Krohne, 2002 ). The stress appraisal model, developed by Lazarus & Folkman ( 1984 ) is the most influential psychological stress model. According to this perspective, the way that we evaluate external events (i.e., stressors) determines our degree of stress. Specifically, Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 , p. 19) define psychological stress as “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being.”

Psychological Stress and Appraisal

Arnold ( 1960 ) was the first theorist to use the term appraisal in the context of emotion and personality. Appraisal became the central concept of Lazarus’s psychological stress theory. The term appraisal refers to the continuous evaluation by individuals of their relationship with the external environment with respect to their implications for well-being (Lazarus, 1999 ).

Lazarus ( 1999 ) emphasizes the importance of differentiating the act of appraisal and appraising. The former focuses on the evaluative product, while the latter is the act of making the evaluation. Lazarus also distinguishes primary and secondary appraisal and appraising. The distinction is based on different sources of information in each evaluation process (Krohne, 2002 ). Primary appraisal refers to the evaluation of whether external events are relevant to one’s values, goal commitments, beliefs about the self and the world, and situational intentions. Stress occurs when external events threaten these key features of well-being during primary appraisal. There are three different stress conditions: harm/loss (damage that has already happened), threat (the possibility of damage in the future), and challenge (the possibility for growth). The primary appraisal has three main components: goal relevance , goal congruence , and type of ego development (Lazarus, 1999 ).

Secondary appraisal reflects evaluative processes that assess resources for dealing with or managing stress. During secondary appraisal, individuals provide judgments about who or what is responsible for a harm, threat, challenge, or benefit in order to place the blame or credit for an outcome issue. It is important to point out that the primary and secondary appraisal processes do not operate independently; instead, they reciprocally influence each other over time (Lazarus, 1999 ).

There are at least three criticisms regarding the concept of appraisal by Lazarus (Smith & Kirby, 2011 ). First, the labeling of appraisal as primary and secondary is misleading, as people often mistakenly assume that they reflect a sequence. Second, the definition of psychological stress is unclear, especially related to how much demand is considered as taxing one’s resources. Lazarus’s definition of stress is relatively restrictive to extreme conditions (i.e., environmental demands exceed resources). Third, it is not clear whether the three types of appraisal (i.e., harm/loss, threat, and challenge) are shaped purely by primary appraisal or by the combination of primary and secondary appraisal.

Coping Processes

Coping processes are very similar to stress appraisal processes. According to Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 , p. 141), coping is defined as “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.” According to this approach, coping follows stress appraisal and involves specific cognitive and behavioral strategies to manage stressful experiences and their consequences (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ). According to the definition of coping by Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ), coping efforts do not include their outcome or effectiveness. Every form of coping can be both effective and maladaptive (Smith & Kirby, 2011 ). Thus, coping also can be defined as the efforts to manage stressful situations, regardless of the effectiveness of those efforts (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ; Smith & Kirby, 2011 ). Indeed, the study of coping is intended to discriminate factors associated with adaptive versus maladaptive coping (Smith & Kirby, 2011 ).

According to Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ), coping can be categorized into two types: problem-focused coping (managing or changing the source of stress) and emotion-focused coping (regulation of stressful emotions). Brown and Nicassio ( 1987 ) offer an alternative classification of coping, which is active versus passive coping. In addition, Jensen, Turner, Romano, and Strom ( 1995 ) classify coping into cognitive versus behavioral types. Finally, Compas and colleagues ( 2001 , 2006 ) differentiate coping into three different categories: primary-control engagement (e.g., problem solving, changing the situation, and emotion regulation), secondary-control engagement (e.g., positive thinking, acceptance, and distraction), and disengagement coping.

There are clear signs that active/primary-control and accommodative/secondary-control coping are associated with adaptive outcomes such as better emotional well-being and physical health (Compas et al., 2006 ; Moskowitz, Hult, Bussolari, & Acree, 2009 ; Walker, Smith, Garber, & Claar, 2005 ). However, there are numerous null findings linking active/primary-control and accommodative/secondary-control coping and positive outcomes (Compas et al., 2001 ; Smith, Wallston, & Dwyer, 2003 ). Coyne and colleagues have extensively discussed limitations in the study of coping (e.g., Coyne & Racioppo, 2000 ). In general, there are at least two aspects that are needed to be improved in future studies of coping (Smith & Kirby, 2011 ): (a) coping should be studied in a more situated, context-specific manner, in which coping and the outcomes associated with individual incidents are examined; and (b) more studies are needed to focus on the role of control-related appraisals mediating the relationship between these dispositional antecedents and coping behavior.

Stress Appraisal and Coping Across Adulthood

In terms of age differences in stress appraisal, older adults appraise problems as less stressful (Aldwin et al., 1996 ; Folkman, Lazarus, Pimley, & Novacek, 1987 ) than younger adults. One possible explanation for this finding is that older individuals have higher levels of resiliency to stressors because of what they have been through across the life course (Aldwin et al., 1996 ). Major life events that are common to older adults, such as the death of a spouse or family member, make them more tolerant of minor stressors in their daily lives. Another possible explanation is that the lower stress appraisal among older adults is due to environmental changes (Lawton, Kleban, Rajagobal, & Dean, 1992 ). For example, retirement may lead to more leisure time for older adults, and thus fewer stressful experiences (Ginn & Fast, 2006 ; Rosenkoetter, Gams, & Engdahl, 2001 ).

Another example of environmental change is that older adults receive more respect from family members, which make their social experiences more pleasant (Fingerman & Baker, 2006 ). For example, others may be more hesitant to argue with or express their negative emotions with older individuals (Fingerman, Miller, & Charles, 2008 ). These explanations may partly explain why older adults reported fewer stressors with age. However, explanations based on retirement or deference to older adults are less conclusive, given that decreases in stressor appraisal continue long after retirement, and long after people have entered the venerable period (Charles, 2010 ). Two theoretical frameworks are especially useful to look at for their alternative explanations regarding lower stressor appraisal among older adults: socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, Fung, & Charles, 2003 ) and the strength and vulnerability integration (SAVI) model (Charles, 2010 ).

According to socioemotional selectivity theory, time perspective plays a critical role in human goal-directed behavior and motivation (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999 ). As individuals get older, they perceive that they have a relatively more limited future compared to younger individuals (Lang & Carstensen, 2002 ). This awareness of limited time left is amplified by the fact that older adults increasingly experience the deaths of friends and family members (Cartensen et al., 2003 ). Change in time perspective is associated with goals among older adults, as they care more about experiencing meaningful relationships and care less about knowledge-related goals (Cartensen et al., 2003 ). According to socioemotional selectivity theory, older individuals achieve this goal by regulating their social contacts and network (Carstensen, Gross, & Fung, 1997 ). Thus, older adults reduce their social contacts in order to optimize emotionally meaningful and gratifying experiences and fewer experiences of negative interchanges (Cartensen et al., 2003 ).

The decrease in social contacts begins relatively early in life, around the 30s (Carstensen, 1992 ), indicating that this decrease is not unique to older individuals (Charles, 2010 ). Empirical studies show that social selection promotes affective well-being, such as increased satisfaction and more positive emotional experiences (Charles & Piazza, 2007 ; Fingerman, Hay, & Birditt, 2004 ). Finally, even though the size of social networks among older adults is decreasing, their social networks are characterized by warm, satisfying, and trusting relationships (Ryff & Keyes, 1995 ).

Charles ( 2010 ) extended the socioemotional selectivity theory by integrating age-related physiological vulnerabilities when considering emotion regulation among older adults. This concept is known as strength and vulnerability integration (SAVI) . According to SAVI, later adulthood is associated with both strengths and vulnerabilities, in which they play important roles in emotion regulation. The strengths include the motivation to maintain meaningful and gratifying relationships due to a change in time perspective (similar to socioemotional selectivity theory), as well as the cognitive-behavioral skills to do so. The vulnerabilities associated with aging include age-related physiological vulnerabilities that affect the recovery process during emotion regulation due to stressful experiences. Thus, increase in age is associated with an enhanced ability to avoid stressors, reappraise them as being less stressful, or both, while at the same time, it is also associated with physiological vulnerabilities that lower the flexibility of response to stress (Almeida et al., 2011 ; Charles 2010 ).

According to SAVI, age-related changes in emotion regulation are less likely to happen during exposure to stressors that cause high levels of physiological arousal. When this happens, older individuals will be less able to employ their emotion regulation strategy due to high physiological cues. After physiological symptoms are normalized, older individuals will report higher levels of well-being again, as their emotional states will be less influenced by their physiological states and more affected by their appraisal of an event. Thus, although the motivation to regulate well-being exists, certain circumstances such as chronic stress and neurological dysregulation may interfere with its efficacy on maintaining well-being (Almeida et al., 2011 ; Charles, 2010 ; Charles & Piazza, 2009 ).

There are mixed results regarding the association between coping strategies and age (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ). Folkman et al. ( 1987 ) found that older individuals reported less frequent use of problem-focused coping compared to younger individuals. Similarly, Aldwin et al. ( 1996 ) found a negative association between age and self-reported use of coping strategies. However, when information about coping was administered using semistructured interviews rather than self-report questionnaires, no age differences were found (Aldwin et al., 1996 ). Even when older individuals used fewer coping strategies, their approaches to cope with a problem were as effective as those of younger individuals (Hobfoll, 2001 ). Except among those who suffer from chronic illness, coping efficacy decreases as individuals get older (Barry et al., 2004 ; Logan, Pelletier-Hibbert, & Hodgins, 2006 ). Thus, in addition to the frequency of coping strategies, it is important to incorporate the analysis of coping efficacy when studying stress, coping, and aging (Aldwin & Yancura, 2011 ).

Biological Stress Perspective

This article ends by briefly describing the biological stress perspective, which focuses on the acute and long-term physiological changes that result from social stressors and their associated psychological appraisals. This perspective highlights the activation of physiological systems that are sensitive to stressful situations, especially the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system (SAM) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (HPA) (Cohen et al., 1997 , 2007 ; Koolhaas et al., 2011 ). Repeated or prolonged activation of these physiological systems is referred to as allostatic load , and it can lead to pathogenesis and disease (McEwen, 2013 ).

Activation of the Sympathetic-Adrenal Medullary System and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

The experience of stress activates physiological changes that reflect the body’s adaptation to meet the demands. Quick, short-term activation is governed by the SAM system. Activation of SAM releases catecholamines, which work with the autonomic nervous system to regulate cardiovascular, pulmonary, hepatic, skeletal muscle, and immune systems (Cohen et al., 2007 ). Longer-term adaptations are met by the HPA system. HPA activation leads to the secretion of the hormone cortisol, which regulates anti-inflammatory responses; metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, and protein; and gluconeogenesis (Cohen et al., 2007 ). Continued and repeated activation of the HPA and SAM systems can disrupt their control over other physiological systems, leading to an increased risk of physical and psychological conditions (Cohen et al., 1997 ; McEwen, 1998 ).

Age, Exposure to Stressors, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis, and the Sympathetic-Adrenal Medullary System

There is evidence that the SAM system changes as individuals get older (Crimmins, Vasunilashorn, Kim, & Alley, 2008 ). The association between age and the SAM system is moderated by exposure to stressors (Almeida et al., 2011 ). Blood pressure is a good example of the change in the SAM system as individuals get older. After the age of 60, systolic blood pressure tends to be higher, whereas diastolic blood pressure tends to be lower (Franklin et al., 2001 ). Elevated systolic blood pressure among older adults is moderated by acute psychosocial stressors (Uchino, Uno, Holt-Lunstad, & Flinders, 1999 ). The increase in age is also associated with depleted epinephrine (Esler et al., 1995 ) and increased levels of norepinephrine (Barnes, Raskind, Gumbrecht, & Halter, 1982 ). The age-related changes in epinephrine and norepinephrine are also moderated by stressor exposure (Esler et al., 1995 ; Barnes et al., 1982 ), although these results were not replicated in other studies, such as Lindheim et al. ( 1992 ). Finally, the association between age and the SAM system may be stronger among people with physical problems, such as among older adults with cardiovascular disease (Almeida et al., 2011 ; Gillum, Makuc, & Feldman, 1991 ).

The age-related changes in the HPA axis are associated with an altered diurnal pattern and a disruption of the negative feedback loop, which leads to the overproduction of cortisol (Almeida et al., 2011 ). Older age is associated with an attenuated cortisol awakening (Almeida, Piazza, & Stawski, 2009 ) and a higher lowest point of evening cortisol (van Cauter, Leproult, & Kupfer, 1996 ). Similar to the SAM system, exposure to stressors moderates the association between age and the HPA axis (Almeida et al., 2011 ). The association between age and the HPA axis function is also stronger among people with worse health (McEwen, 1998 ).

Allostatic Load

One mechanism that might explain how continued and repeated activation of stress hormones influence health risk is deterioration of brain function. This hypothesis, known as the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis , refers to the cascade effect of stress hormones on health (McEwen, 1998 , 2013 ; Sapolsky, Krey, & McEwen, 1986 ). Continuous activation of stress hormones gradually deteriorates brain function, leads to a higher level of cortisol, and in turn jeopardizes health. Discussion of the impact of stress on the brain involves two concepts: allostasis and allostatic load (McEwen, 1998 ). Allostasis refers to adapting to a stressful situation and bringing the body back to homeostasis, whereas allostatic load is the cost of frequent or prolonged adaptations on the body and brain. The release of stress hormones is an example of an adaptive physiological response to a stressful experience. However, prolonged exposure to stressful experiences might lead to wear and tear on the HPA axis.

According to McEwen ( 1998 ), there are three types of physiological responses that lead to allostatic load: frequent stress, failed shutdown, and inadequate response. Frequent stress refers to the magnitude and frequency of responses or the frequency and intensity of the hits that lead to allostatic load (McEwen, 1998 ). Failed shutdown refers to chronic activity and failure to shut off this activity, such as with type II diabetes (McEwen, 1998 ). Finally, inadequate response refers to the failure to respond to a challenge, such as autoimmunity and inflammation (McEwen, 1998 ). In general, studies have found that indicators of physiological capacity and physiological reserve decrease as individuals get older, although the rate of decline varies across individuals (Crimmins, Johnston, Hayward, & Seeman, 2003 ; Lipsitz & Goldberger, 1992 ; Manton, Woodbury, & Stallard, 1995 ). Allostatic load index, a composite measure of multiphysical systems related to wear and tear due to stress (for details, see Juster, McEwen, & Lupien, 2010 ), increases with age (Crimmins et al., 2003 ). A higher allostatic load index indicates more physical systems that are in the high-risk category.

Stress and Health: Integrating the Social, Psychological, and Biological Stress Perspectives

One significant development in the study of stress over the past several decades is an increased emphasis on multilevel analysis of stress, which stretches from cells to society (Contrada, 2011 ). Relevant to the discussion in this article, the current trend in this field is the integration of the social, psychological, and biological stress perspectives to better understand the influence of stress on health and well-being. In turn, this knowledge can be utilized to design better intervention programs to improve health and quality of life in general.

Miller, Chen, and Parker ( 2011 ), for example, developed a framework known as biological embedding of the childhood adversity model , which links early-life, chronic stressors to chronic diseases in adulthood. According to this model, chronic stressors during childhood, such as living in poverty, are hypothesized to dysregulate physiological systems (e.g., establishing a pro-inflammatory phenotype in the immune system). Across the life course, this physiological dysregulation is amplified by hormonal dysregulation and behavioral proclivities due to the ongoing chronic stressors, causing chronic inflammation, which in turn is associated with accelerated aging, frailty, and chronic diseases. This model is an excellent example of integrating multiple levels of stress to better understand the etiology of chronic diseases associated with aging.

Another example of a study in this area is Surachman et al. ( 2018 ), which investigates the interaction between structural factors, such as life-course SES and daily stressors, and daily well-being. The results show that childhood SES is directly and indirectly (through adult SES and daily stressor severity) associated with daily well-being in adulthood, especially daily negative affect and daily physical symptoms. These results may have significant public health implications, given that previous empirical findings have shown that higher daily physical symptoms and negative affect due to daily stressors are associated with long-term health outcomes, such as chronic physical and psychological distress (Charles et al., 2013 ; Piazza et al., 2013 ), functional impairment (Leger et al., 2015 ), and mortality risk (Chiang et al., 2018 ). In addition, research on the influence of childhood SES on biological functioning in later life has shown the significance of daily stress processes and daily well-being as potential mechanisms of disparities in chronic diseases (Carroll, Cohen, & Marsland, 2011 ; Desantis, Kuzawa, & Adam, 2015 ; Miller et al., 2011 ).

Stress is a broad and complex phenomenon that links three components: environmental demands, internal psychological processes, and physical outcomes. Each of these components are reflected in three theoretical perspectives of stress. The social perspective is likely to emphasize stressful events (i.e., stressors) and the social context of these events; the psychological perspective focuses on internal evaluations and appraisals; and the biological perspective highlights physiological adaptions to these events and appraisals. To understand the role of stress in aging, it is necessary to appreciate each of these perspectives.

As we age, our social roles direct us to be exposed to a variety of life events, chronic stress, and daily hassles. In addition, the way that we appraise and cope with stress is likely to change as we accumulate a lifetime of experience. Finally, it appears obvious that biological changes accompany age, and such changes will likely be accelerated by the stress we experience. We hope that this article has provided the reader with some guidance on the theory of stress and coping across the adult life course.

Stress: Definition and Different Types of Stress Essay

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Stress can be defined as any cognitive, emotional, or physical pressure that when built, affects an individual directly or indirectly by influencing his work, work-related, or personal life. At work, stress affects an individual’s performance, either negatively or positively. Negative, when stress provokes depressive or pessimistic stress patterns, whereas positive when stress enables an individual to face and accept challenges. There are various stressors responsible for inducing stress patterns in work and relationships environments. Environmental stressors such as noise, heat, speech, aircraft noise, traffic noise, office noise, etc. The three main types of stress, present in any environment are physical, emotional, and cognitive (psychological). Any of these stresses incur as a result of work overload, repetitive tasks that underestimate individual’s capability, and job mismatch. Problems of work overload are directly or indirectly associated with psychological or physical pressure. For instance, individuals who find themselves in jobs that are ill-suited to their skills, abilities, and training or that do not meet their needs and expectations are likely to experience stress.

Stress impacts human performance, either individually or in teams and depicts a unique relationship between the person and the environment that is judged by the person for his own well-being. This clearly indicates that at work, not all stress is negative. It is stress in teamwork that induces the motivation factor to accept all the challenges that in the longer run evaluates and appraises the individual. At work there are two types of stressors that influence individuals. Ambient or indirect stressors, that is associated as major factors to be a part of the environment or background where the individual works. Direct stressors or performance-related stressors are directly linked to task performance. Performance-related stressors can be minimized by successful task performance. Stress is positive when it is perceived by an individual, for achieving his goals. However, there are certain variables of stress, which are proposed to have a direct impact on the team’s interaction and coordination. Such teamwork stressors that trigger motivation and promote a sense of coordination among teams include workload, team size, team management, and timeliness to accomplish a task.

Stress when relating to performance has remained a critical issue for there are controversies between positive and negative influences of stress. Many believe that individual or team performance is susceptible to the effects of stress as there is a requirement for teams to maintain acceptable performance. This is done by interacting effectively with fellow team members, which also pressurizes the stressed member to maintain his or her own performance. Another critical issue about work stress is its influence on family members, which is usually negative.

Work-family conflict gives rise to a high magnitude of stress transmission, which emotionally affects family members. It would be better to say that work-related stress when remaining unmanaged, induce stress among family members and relationships in a pessimistic manner. Here comes stress in emotion management that works among various relations including family and friends.

Stress in education has enabled us to think towards stress-management training, which has provided us with a useful function to help individuals to recognize the symptoms of stress and to overcome any negativity related to the stress. There are various awareness activities and skills-training programs designed to cope up with stress-related issues. Such techniques have proven useful in helping individuals deal with stressors and accept realities inherent in the work environment.

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COVID-19: Stress and Anxiety

[Additional essays and videocasts regarding psychological ramifications of the COVID-19 virus outbreak can be found at: https://communitiescollaborating.com/[

The COVID-19 virus knows all about the human psyche. The virus is aware that we experience stress and become anxious when we keep a distance from other people and are forced to isolate ourselves from direct, physical contact with the people we love and cherish. Under conditons of stress and as we become more anxious, our vulnerability also increases — leaving us even more anxious. A vicious cycle . . . and a cycle that we need to stop!!

This essay includes material prepared by members of the Global Psychology Task Force–a group of experienced professional psychologists from around the world who have come together to address the psychological ramifications of the COVID-19 virus. They have prepared a website (www.communities collaborating.com) that incorporates essays, video clips and links to other references that address these ramifications. This essay is derived from the content of this website.

Stress Ruts, Lions and Lumens

We start with a brief video presentation by Dr. William Bergquist, a member of the Global Psychology Task Force. He has titled his presentation: “Stress Ruts, Lions and Lumens in the Age of the Pandemic”:

Reducing the Stress and Anxiety

This essay concerns the way to reduce the stress and anxiety. In addressing this psychological dynamic we turn to both the anxiety aroused by those who have tested positive for the virus and those who have not been tested or have been tested and are negative but still worry about the physical and psychological health of other people in their life, as well as their own economic health and the economic and societal health of their community and country.

https://www.vox.com/identities/2020/3/21/21188362/manage-anxiety-pandemic

We turn now to someone who have been infected by COVID-19

Managing the Anxiety as Someone Who Has Been Infected

The anxiety associated with any major illness is quite understandable and is not in any way a sign of weakness. There are many ways in which to address this anxiety–such as looking to loved ones for support (even if they can’t be physically present), reducing other sources of stress in one’s life, identifying daily plans for dealing with the virus–and most importantly taking actions that enable you to feel less powerless and victimized.

It is perhaps best to turn from these general recommendations to the insights offered by someone who has been infected and struggled for a lengthy period of time with the infestation and related fever and isolation. This person is Dr. Suzanne Brennen-Nathan, one or our Global Psychology Task Force members. Suzanne is a highly experienced psychotherapist who has specialized in the treatment of trauma in her clinical practice. Who better to reflect on the illness and offer recommendations then someone “who has been there” and has expertise in the traumatizing impact of a major illness like COVID-19. Suzanne has been interviewed by Dr. William Bergquist, another member of the Task Force:

Managing the Anxiety as Someone Who Hasn’t Been Tested or Is Negative But Still Fearful

What about those of us who have not tested positive for COVID-19 or have not been tested at all. At the heart of the matter in facing the challenges associated with the COVID-19 virus — whether these challenges be financial, vocational or family related–is the stress that inevitably is induced when we think about, feel about and take action about the virus’ threatening nature.

We therefore begin this statement about action to be taken with an excellent presentation by one of our task force members, Christy Lewis:

https://youtu.be/1JL9oknNqVk

To begin a cross-cultural reflection on the psychological ramifications of the COVID-19 virus, we offer an essay on the way in which one of our Task Force members, Eliza Wong, Psy.D., works with highly anxious clients in her home country: Singapore.

Dealing with Anxiety during COVID-19 in Singapore

We hope these perspectives on stress and anxiety in the age of the COVID-19 virus invasion provides some guidance for you in better understanding the psychological impact of the virus and identifying actions you can take to help ameliorate this impact.

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Stress generally refers to two things: the psychological perception of pressure, on the one hand, and the body's response to it, on the other, which involves multiple systems, from metabolism to muscles to memory .

Some stress is necessary for all living systems; it is the means by which they encounter and respond to the challenges and uncertainties of existence. The perception of danger sets off an automatic response system, known as the fight-or-flight response, that, activated through hormonal signals, prepares an animal to meet a threat or to flee from it.

What Causes Stress?
How to Manage Stress
How Stress Affects Health

A stressful event—whether it’s the sudden appearance of a snake on the path or the fear of losing your job when the boss yells—triggers a cascade of hormones , including adrenaline and cortisol, that surge through the body.

These hormones increase heartbeat and the circulation of blood to support quick action, mobilize fat and sugar for immediate energy, focus attention to track the danger, prepare muscles for movement, and more.

But this lifesaving response was meant to solve short-term, life-threatening problems, not extended difficulties such as daily traffic jams or marital problems—a few of the many challenges that can hijack the stress response today.

Many people today feel they perpetually struggle with stress and anxiety . Society’s obsession with productivity , the steady stream of digital information we consume, increasingly sedentary lifestyles, and feelings of overwhelm may contribute to the stress that so many are feeling.

Chronic stress can often be difficult to spot , as it can emerge in the absence of a severe or acute incident. Different factors, such as a disrupted sleep schedule, feeling perpetually undervalued at work, and not having close relationships with friends or family members can all independently contribute to chronic stress.

The signs of stress include insomnia , stomachaches, headaches, muscle tension, a racing heartbeat, and trouble concentrating, among others. Signs of burnout , a concept distinct from stress, include three key markers: emotional exhaustion, cynicism and depersonalization, and reduced personal efficacy.

There are both physical and psychological approaches to blunt stress. Physical steps include meditation , yoga, and exercise. Psychological strategies include leaning on loved ones or in more severe cases seeing a mental health professional.

Since the stress response begins in the brain with the perception of danger or the unknown, researchers now believe that the most basic, and likely most effective, way to diffuse stress is to change the perception of certain situations so that they are not seen as stressful in the first place.

Studies show that helping people see certain experiences—such as final exams—as demanding rather than dire protects them from the corrosive effects of stress while still delivering its positive effects, such as focused attention and speedier information processing. Changing the stress mindset not only minimizes the harms of stress, studies show, but it also enhances performance and productivity.

Plan and organize your time, reflect on your values and strengths, and practice relaxation techniques such as deep breathing. Additionally, reframe negative thoughts about a situation to neutral or positive thoughts so that you can see the full picture. Research shows that these strategies and others can successfully curb stress.

There are both healthy and unhealthy responses to stress. Unhealthy responses can include turning to alcohol , drugs, or gambling. Healthy coping strategies include meditation, exercise, journaling, practicing gratitude , and trying to let go of what is beyond our control.

Instead of fixating on an overwhelming worry or responsibility, be specific about the tasks that need to be completed. Break each one down into small, manageable parts, and then focus on one at a time rather than trying to multitask. These actions and others can help bring work stress under control.

Recognize the symptoms of stress—such as difficulty concentrating, irritability or sadness, and sleep problems—to know when and how to respond. Control what you can, and then try to release the concerns that you cannot control. Additionally, limit news consumption, reach out to loved ones, and practice self-care.

Short bursts of stress aren’t inherently harmful, although it can take time for the body to calm down. Yet prolonged or repeated arousal of the stress response can have harmful physical and psychological consequences. Those repercussions include ailments from heart disease and diabetes to anxiety and depression .

Stress can lead to changes in many different parts of the body. Stress can lead to a faster heartbeat, muscle tension, and gastrointestinal issues. It can lead to heavier and faster breathing, which can strain the lungs, and blunt the immune system’s ability to respond to threats.

Ongoing stress assaults the immune system, making us more vulnerable to disease. Although stress hormones ready the body for emergencies, they also depress the immune system by decreasing inflammation and decreasing white blood cell production. Stress may therefore contribute to illnesses such as heart disease, cancer, and others.

Stress hormones, such as cortisol, are naturally produced every day so that people can take on the challenges ahead. But marinating in high levels of stress hormones over time can prompt the brain to function differently, leading to memory impairment, cognitive problems, anxiety, or depression.

The American Psychological Association (APA) found that Americans have a “battered psyche” from the onslaught of stress that they are facing. This strategy can help.

Discover the hidden costs of "spaving"—the lure of saving while spending. Here's how to avoid this trap and protect your financial well-being.

A cluttered house can cause a spike in the stress hormone cortisol, and this effect is more pronounced in women than men. Why is this so, and what can be done about it?

Financial literacy is a critical factor in mental well-being. Without proper financial knowledge, we can experience a decline in mental and emotional health based on money issues.

Discover how befriending stress, instead of fearing it, can unlock a healthier, more fulfilling life. Find the hidden benefits and learn practical steps to make stress your ally.

Explore practical ways to integrate mindfulness into your daily routine. These strategies can help reduce stress, prevent burnout, and support long-term well-being.

Chronic stress lies in a no-man’s land between acute stress and distress, which makes it the type of stress we tend to ignore. But left uncontrolled, it harms our health.

Severe, prolonged stress is impacting the mental health of parents.

Our culture glorifies busyness, but doing less can be the key to finding balance. Learn how to break free and find relief and peace.

Getting back in tune with nature is great for your mental health.

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Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 72, 2021, review article, stress and health: a review of psychobiological processes.

Daryl B. O'Connor 1 , Julian F. Thayer 2 , and Kavita Vedhara 3
View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; email: [email protected] 2 Department of Psychological Science, School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA; email: [email protected] 3 Division of Primary Care, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, United Kingdom; email: [email protected]
Vol. 72:663-688 (Volume publication date January 2021) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-062520-122331
First published as a Review in Advance on September 04, 2020
Copyright © 2021 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved

The cumulative science linking stress to negative health outcomes is vast. Stress can affect health directly, through autonomic and neuroendocrine responses, but also indirectly, through changes in health behaviors. In this review, we present a brief overview of ( a ) why we should be interested in stress in the context of health; ( b ) the stress response and allostatic load; ( c ) some of the key biological mechanisms through which stress impacts health, such as by influencing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation and cortisol dynamics, the autonomic nervous system, and gene expression; and ( d ) evidence of the clinical relevance of stress, exemplified through the risk of infectious diseases. The studies reviewed in this article confirm that stress has an impact on multiple biological systems. Future work ought to consider further the importance of early-life adversity and continue to explore how different biological systems interact in the context of stress and health processes.

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Essay on stress: top 7 essays | human behaviour | psychology.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Stress’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Stress’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Stress

Essay Contents:

Essay on Stress Research

Essay # 1. Introduction to Stress:

Lewis Mumford in his classical book “ The Transformation of Man” observes that if one were to go by the theory of evolution we find that up to the level of the human being, the evolution has been “autoplastic”, i.e. to deal with the problems of survival, the organism has been changing itself, from unicellular to multicellular, from the invertebrate to vertebrate, etc. But at the human level, change has been “alloplastic”.

The basic human nature of the noblest and greatest of human beings today is no different biologically from that of the early savage. The evolution at the human level has been social, and this through an environment which the human being has been changing and manipulating through his own actions.

This means, the emergent problems of stress and anxiety faced by modern man is essentially an offspring of the environment he has created. Man is helpless in confronting his own mischief. We can certainly make an allusion to the story of Mohini and Bhasmasura (the teacher may explain this episode in the class).

The effect of all these is, to lead an individual to certain psychological consequences. The 20th century, in spite of all its scientific and materialistic advances has been described as an ‘age of anxiety’.

Karen Homey is of the opinion that modern society necessarily generates what you call ‘basic anxiety’ and very few are free from it, and in order to overcome this anxiety certain neurotic trends like restlessness, loneliness, aggressiveness, helplessness, compulsiveness and radicalism, etc. develop. This seems to be a new form of religion.

In the past few years, a concept has emerged in behavioural science research and also physiological research to understand and evolve ways and means of dealing with this state of human existence. Psychologists, physiologists and medical scientists and many others have found that the term ‘stress’ can be borrowed from physics to explain many of the symptoms described above.

It has been shown that rapid socio-cultural changes, ecological changes, certain psychological factors, lifestyles, all contribute to the stress. We may examine in brief the concept of stress, its nature and consequences.

M. Franken Heuser observes, “life in contemporary society is less stressful (physically) than that of any previous generation. Our age however has its own problems, many of them psychological or social in nature. Today we need not be starved in cold or physically exhausted for stress to occur (as in the earlier times). Life in technologically advanced societies imposes new demands on the same bodily resources that helped our ancestors to survive, for making them fight or flee”.

David Hamburg, leading medical scientist observes “our species has moved rapidly to take advantage of the technological opportunities and their concomitant material benefits, to undertake patterns of behaviour which are at times achieved only at high costs in terms of psycho-biology” . These problems ultimately result in ‘stress’.

Essay # 2. Sources of Stress:

Stress can be caused by many factors in the life of an individual, spread over years. It comes to be felt only if it exceeds a certain critical intensity.

Some of the factors which can contribute to the accumulation of stress are as follows:

(i) Frustration :

Repeated failures in our attempts to achieve certain goals can contribute to stress. This type of repeated failure leads to frustration. Frustration involves the blocking or thwarting of our needs. Frustration again, can be mild and temporary or severe, prolonged and cumulative, resulting in stress.

Lack of opportunities, delays, discriminatory treatment, lack of resources, etc. are some of the common factors involved in frustration. Anyone who has had some work to be done with a government office would have certainly experienced frustration because of delay, silly objections, callousness and utter irresponsibility of the system. Similarly, personal limitations like physical limitations, repeated failures, etc. can also cause frustration.

Chandler, Fidler, Southgate and many others have pointed out how loneliness, actual or psychological, can result in frustration. In modern society, many people feel alienated. The brazen and shameless attempts by some to acquire positions of power, material wealth, etc., may definitely alienate the people and make it difficult for them to live a wholesome and meaningful life.

It is here we see a paradoxical situation. Many of those who are ‘go getters’, believe that “ends justify means” and are materially successful, but at the same time find themselves equally unhappy or worse than those who do not subscribe to mercenary ways of life.

In fact, it has been found that stress-related symptoms like, diabetes, hypertension and ulcers are much more common among those who apparently succeed by pushing and driving themselves to achieve “success”. The pressure to go after success endlessly, ultimately results in stress which manifests itself in various forms.

(ii) Conflicts :

All of us experience conflicts, ‘to do something or not to do’. Conflicts can be of different types. In modern life, almost every point of decision-making in one’s life tends to create conflicts, like choice of a job, educational, choice of a spouse; choice, in fact any choice situation poses a problem.

Conflicts have been described as approach-approach type, avoidance- avoidance type, and approach-avoidance type. But whatever be the nature of the conflict, it necessarily generates stress resulting in considerable amount of discomfort, restlessness, etc.

(iii) Pressure :

Contemporary society puts a lot of pressure on the individual. It is often very difficult to enjoy solitude. There is competition everywhere, for education, for job position and almost anything. There is a premium on success at any cost, and by and large success is measured in terms of possessions and positions.

We have to prove to be the fittest to survive (Darwin must be chuckling in his grave; whether his theme is scientific or not, it has proved prophetic). Today there is struggle for ‘moving up’ and the pity is, there is a struggle not only for real success but for imaginary success. The human being has become a victim of his own perverse value system.

Here, a problem arises as to who is the fittest. The Darwinian theory, simply and logically, based the ‘concept of fitness’ on the physical capacity of the organism to endure deprivation and possibly even competition. But, in our society, often it happens the other way.

Today “those who are successful are deemed to be the fittest, while according to Darwin, it would have been the other way. Instances are not wanting where a person who has been looked down as useless and good for nothing, if he somehow becomes successful is perceived and judged to be very capable and competitive. The same people who condemned him earlier very often can be heard saying I knew even then that he had some talent”.

Thus, with so much premium laid on competitive success, we notice a tendency for people to set for themselves unrealistic goals. The result is failure, leading to frustration, and ultimately emerging stress.

The fact that today’s society compels individuals to adapt and change their behaviour, whether it is really necessary or not, keeps an individual under pressure. This type of pressure operates in almost every walk of life. Every individual is expected to keep pace with this pressure which seriously affects what Toffler described as ‘adaptive circuits’. Similarly, inter-personal relationships can also produce stress.

The need to keep up appearances, the variations in the degree and type of inter-personal relations, all complicate life. You are expected to smile and be nice to a person whom you don’t like and who in your opinion is a despicable specimen.

In addition to the quality of relationship, the mere failure of interpersonal relationships makes a very high demand. In the traditional societies relationships were limited but stable. Unfortunately this is not the case in today’s society. The closest relationship can break for no reason.

Essay # 3. Causes of Stress:

The Stress results from a number of factors and can be definitely harmful to the individual. The effect of this harm can vary in form, degree and content. Stress is related to environmental factors or events of a personal nature like loss of a job, loss of a dear one, the fear of financial losses, or a series of crises etc.

Such factors which contribute to stress are described as stressors. These then create a need for the individual to change his habits, behaviour, attitudes, etc., which in turn enhance the stress. Thus, there appears to be a vicious circle-problems demand for change ineffective change increase in stress, and finally one reaches a stage where there can be a complete psychological breakdown.

It is not only the actual occurrence of an event, loss or failure, but even the perceived possibility of such an event can cause stress. For example, whenever our government proclaims that it wants to enforce austerity (often it is only a pretension), people are afraid of losing their jobs or blocking of promotions or future unemployment of their children.

Similarly, automation is perceived as likely to result in a loss of jobs or even reduced employment. Even today, there are many examples in our country, where people resist changes in organizations out of fear. The opposition to the move towards privatisation is an example of such anticipatory reaction.

A third set of factors relates not to situations as such, but to how people react and respond to this actual stress or anticipated stress. People differ in their reactions to the stress. Some react more intensely. Others seem to overcome the stress and a third set of people do not appear to be bothered at all.

It is here that we get into trouble. The onset and effects of stress are imperceptible, not visible and perhaps not consciously experienced by the person himself. At the other end there are people whose adjustment processes collapse and the effects are visible.

But even if the presence of stress is imperceptible, it can certainly affect the basic physiological processes and when sufficient amount of stress accumulates, can result in a breakdown, psycho-physiological disturbances, or defensive behaviour like withdrawal, rationalisation, conformity, etc.

Of course, there are individuals who are able to react to stress positively and effectively and in such cases stress turns out to be an advantage and brings out the best in the person. This possibility depends on how mild or severe the stress is and also what type of a person the individual is.

In view of this it has often been argued that a very mild degree of stress is in fact helpful and has motivating effect, but one does not know where the grey area is and at what point constructive stress can turn into destructive stress.

Essay # 4. Effects of Stress :

Stress affects the organism as a totality, even though the stressor may be located in any particular segment of his life space. For example, if the stress is related to the work situation it does not cease at 5.00 PM when the individual leaves the work spot. It continues to affect him even when he goes back home.

The effects of stress are general and diffused. Similarly, stressing situations of personal life can affect behaviour in the work situation, social interactions or for that matter in any situation.

Stress, then, is essentially a sort of pressure of a psychophysiological nature arising and accumulating as a result of environmental factors or as a result of an interaction between environmental factors and behavioural styles, necessitating varying degrees of behavioural changes cognitive, conative and affective.

The effect of this is to weigh the individual down and this manifests itself in various forms ranging from simple restlessness at one end to severe psychological breakdown at the other. Stress is very often caused by not just the intensity of the stressors but by our own reaction tendencies, emotions, desires, prejudices, etc. Incidentally stress can also be contagious.

Others can gift away their stress to us and the reverse is also possible. For example, during examination times it is often seen that if the child is under stress because of the competitive nature of the examination the parents also experience stress and almost become panicky. This is like the man experiencing labor pains when the woman is delivering a baby. Stress involves psychological, social, biological and physical factors and in most instances all operate together.

All of us experience stress of varying degrees of intensity. Of course, in most cases mild stress is overcome by learning new coping behaviour which not only helps us to overcome a present set of stress but also equips us to be in a position to face future stress. But, there are others who are not able to achieve this.

There are wide individual differences in the capacity for stress tolerance, and the ways in which people react to stress. Thus both acquisition of stress and the manner of reaction to it are the results of the type of socialisation and lifestyle of the individual.

Essay # 5. Factors Affecting Stress:

The term stress has been used by psychologists with varying meanings. An idea of the wide range of definitions can be had if one goes through the reviews by Janis and Levinthal, Apply & Trumble, Lazarus. Scots defines stress as a “situation in which adjustment is difficult or impossible but in which motivation is very strong”.

The emotional and psychological state resulting out of such a situation will be stress. This definition appears to be a more or less reasonable one, for anyone to begin a discussion on the problem of stress.

Some of the factors associated with experience of stress are physical changes, isolation, solitude, crowding, noise, lack of privacy, monotony and personality incompatibility. Very often these factors act in combination and rarely do we find that a single factor can account for all the stress.

It has been shown that continuous exposure to the situations can result in a high degree of stress, which in turn can have a lot of effects on performance and also debilitate the individual. There is some evidence, of course, to show that occasionally, a mild degree of stress can really augment and facilitate performance. Investigators have pointed, to an inverted U relationship, between the amount of stress and performance.

While there has been success in attempts at predicting individual reactions to stress, by and large there has not been much of a success achieved in predicting stress behaviour in general terms. Laboratory studies and field studies have often shown trends of results which differ from each other.

Laboratory simulations of stress, confinement and isolation, have been difficult to complete because of high emotional tension in performance and profound inter-personal conflicts. Field researches on the other hand, as in the armed forces, have noticed success in overcoming combat stress in exploration groups, paratroops landing etc. Thus, lab situations often result in wrong predictions and sometimes gross under-estimation of stress-tolerance.

Noise has been found to be one of the most severe stressors. A few studies on children have shown that children from noisy homes suffer from attention difficulties and consequently poor school performance. Noisy schools can also lead to health problems in children and in adults, high blood pressure, lower-tolerance level, reduction in auditory skills, etc.

Memory about contents of social situations in pictures viewed under conditions of noise are also affected. Mathews & Canney have shown that noise is such a stressor that it can adversely affect even helping behaviour. When we are under noisy conditions, we are inclined to be less helpful.

Heat is another factor which has been studied as a stressor. A commission, appointed to look into the 1960 riots in U.S.A., (Kemer Commission) noted that high temperature was related with extensity and intensity of the riots. A number of other researches have also found supporting evidence.

Personality Factors:

There are certain psychological or personality factors which contribute to stress proneness. Individuals differ in many aspects of behaviour and their ability to tolerate stress and reacting to the same are also related to personal factors.

Basic temperamental factors, previous experience, perceived extent of one’s control over the situation, all are important factors in shaping the individual’s reaction to stress. Friedmen & Rosennan have identified two types of personalities, Type A and Type B, the former always in a hurry and thus flaying with speed and restless.

He shows a tendency to crowd activities, or do many things at the same time. He is competitive, anxious, and always on the move. He is the typical hard driving achievement-oriented individual. Many such people experience more stress, often manifested in the form of cardio-vascular problems.

The Type-B is characterised by relaxed behaviour, cautious and tolerant. These types of individuals do not drive themselves nor drive others too much. They plan their activities and have higher degree of stress-tolerance. Researchers have shown that there is a fairly high degree of association between Type-A characteristics and proneness to accumulate stress and also being unable to deal with it effectively.

All these factors, like frustration, conflict, pressure and personality and stylistic factors provide a fertile soil for stress to develop and grow, in addition to external demands. The problem of stress experience is lessened if the individual has control over the situation and also control over himself.

A sense of helplessness increases the severity of the stress. It has been noticed interestingly, that there are instances, where actual stressing factors are not essential, but the individual’s anticipation of the same is enough. Similarly, it is not necessary that an individual should have the actual ability to control outside and inside factors of stress.

The perceived ability and confidence on the part of the individual about his ability to deal with the problems of stress is much more important. Thus, people with ‘internal locus of control’ look into themselves, are reflective, and are not simply swayed by the environment. They are found to have a greater ability for stress tolerance as observed by Bandura, Geer Davison & Gotchel.

The above discussion of stress as an interesting component of human life has helped to point out a number of factors; social, and psychological involved in the experience of stress. It is obvious then that an individual’s attitudes and values play an important role.

Similarly, an individual’s lifestyle or “reaction type” to the environment is also very crucial. The social psychologist can find very few problems to claim his attention which are more important than stress. He should be able to identify the various internal and external characteristics, which contribute to the onset and increase of stress.

Similarly, he can also think of suggesting necessary social support systems for those who are likely to be stress prone. It was seen that very often loneliness is critically associated with stress.

The social psychologist can work out ways and means to develop systems and institutions which will provide the necessary social support which, traditionally, the home and the school and religion were providing. However, one hopes that in the process he does not increase the stress of others, but also his own.

Today these institutions appear to have become ineffective. Franken Hauser has the following to say:

“When assessing the potential of psychology in promoting human health and welfare it is important to remember that people today have a much better chance than earlier generations, of shaping their own environment to suit human needs. Technology provides a tool and the task now is to devise application of new technology so that they can contribute to the realisation of social and human goals. What has been observed above is that it is mainly the shaping and consolidation of proper attitudes and values that is probably the most important requirement, and this certainly is the domain of the social psychologist. He cannot disown it and others cannot appropriate this responsibility to themselves”.

Essay # 6. Manifestations of Stress :

Stress often operates without being noticed. Every person has a certain capacity to tolerate stress. But if the stress goes on accumulating, slowly certain symptoms begin to appear.

Some of the common manifestations of stress are as follows:

It may appear as restlessness, increased anxiety and gradual decrease in efficiency. The individual after sometime really gives the appearance of being under tension.

Slowly symptoms of respiratory problems, cardio-vascular problems, ulcers, skin problems, etc., begin to appear; insomnia, decreased activity level, loss of efficiency, decreased ability to concentrate and increased irritability are also some possible manifestations. Often multiple symptoms can be evident.

Coleman observes that stress need not always be unpleasant and result in negative consequence; the instances where stress results in negative consequences are referred to as ‘distress’. On the other hand in certain instances other forms of stress can stimulate a person to become more efficient, more creative and active. This type of stress is known as Eustress.

The reader will certainly appreciate that, while the latter category of stress is welcome; the former is not. In fact, we may even say that very mild form of stress is often found to be congenial to more adaptive behaviour. But this type of stress is much less frequent than negative stress. Only people with very high degrees of ‘stress tolerance’ are likely to derive benefit out of Eustress.

Essay # 7. Stress Research:

Stress research has been carried out mainly along two lines. The first line takes a physiological approach because there certainly are physiological factors in the causation of stress. Some of the earliest experiments in this area were earned out by Selye. Selye observed that animals exhibited a generalized system of response to all threatening situations in addition to specific symptoms.

There is a General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) which includes the following:

(a) A system of signalling or alarm which arises and prepares the body to resist stress.

(b) The stage of resistance, wherein the body tries to cope with the stress.

When these operations in a cyclic form are repeated very often the organism reaches a third stage of exhaustion, and greater vulnerability to diseases. The work of Selye has very much influenced the nature and direction of research efforts to understand the problem of external stress and there is now a general consensus that attempts to cope with the stress can themselves contribute to stress as observed by Avens; Anderson & Tennent; Sklar & Anesmin.

Behavioural or psychological understanding of stress depends on how we define and approach the problem. We may take the approach that stress is a kind of demand or disturbance which appears capable of testing an individual’s abilities to adapt to various situations. Thus, we may look at stress as a potential threat to adaptability, readjustment, etc., and forcing the organism to seek re-adaptation.

Our adaptation to stress very much depends on how we estimate the severity of the stress. This primary appraisal should also include an assessment of our own resources to deal with them. It is the latter part which is sometimes called secondary appraisal.

However, our assessment of a stress situation is influenced by a number of factors including physical environment and social environment, our own past experience, values, motive, goals, etc. In general, researches have suggested a few models of stress. Perhaps a brief look at these models will be of interest.

(1) Arousal Model :

This model focuses on the intensity of the stimulation which arouses a stressful situation, both psychological and physiological in the individual. Thus, extreme temperature, noise, etc. can straightaway result in stress. The other models, however, focus on the adequacy or inadequacy of the individual’s coping mechanism or his resources.

(2) Information Overload Model :

The model lays emphasis on the fact that in contemporary society there is too much of information which an individual is not able to absorb. The only way of coping under this model is by eliminating or blocking out a certain part of the stimulation.

Milgram argues that the coldness of the modern urban individual is very much a result of this tendency to avoid stress by filtering out, evading or even eluding certain stimulation. This may have its consequences on his interpersonal relationships. When he needs emotional support he may not get it.

(3) Congruence Model :

The argument here is that stress occurs when we are in some way thwarted by the environment and unable to adjust in such a way that our goals will not be thwarted. For example, if there is too much crowd on the street, drivers may not be able to reach their destination fast. Too many telephone calls, may not permit you to do your work. This model has been proposed by Stohals.

Stress Research in India:

The nature of stress and its effects certainly appears to have been known to ancient India. The various prescriptions of how to live, what to do and what not to do, the intricate details about styles of lives, what to eat what not to eat, what to hear and what not to hear, what to see and what not to see and also the elaborate working out of Yagnas, Yogic exercises, etc. stand as eloquent evidence to the fact that the ancient Indian thinkers had a fairly in-depth knowledge of the phenomenon of stress, its adverse effects and also the methods of coping with stress.

The doctrine of the three gunas, Satva, Rajas and Tamas as also the elaborate enunciation of the doctrine of humour (body hormones). Kapha, Pitha and Vata (dhatus) are all strong indicators of the pre-occupation of ancient Indian science with the phenomenon of stress, understanding its aetiological factors including personality and temperamental factors.

Ramachandra Rao traces the concept of stress to the Sankhya and Yoga systems of philosophy. He draws our attention to the two terms Klesa and Dhukha, whose meanings appear to bear a considerable amount of resemblance to the present day description of stress.

Ancient Indian texts also have made references to three types of stress, personal stress (Adhyatmika), situational stress (Adhibhautika) and environmental stress (Adhidivika).

We can see here an anticipation of what we to-day call indigenous personal factors in stress, situational or episodic factors in stress and finally ecological environmental factors. Ancient Indian theory had also mentioned a number of mechanisms of coping with stress and understanding the same.

It was ultimately realised that in the last analysis it is the individual who should help himself by organising his way of life. The fact that in describing various stages of life (Ashramas), prescribing specific duties and also the very insightful emphasis on gradual withdrawal and disengagement from active life and taking to introspection, spiritual pre-occupation and learning to live by oneself, all this is a very eloquent reflection of the depth of knowledge the ancient Indians had, about the origins, effects and manifestations of stress and related phenomena and also the means of dealing with them.

But as is usual the thread of research and analysis of stress by ancient Indian thinkers was lost sight of. But during the past decade, there has been a re-awakening of interest in re-discovering what ancient Indian thinkers and scientists had to say on this problem.

It is only hoped that this is a genuine attempt at rediscovery and not pseudo patriotic revivalism. An attempt is made here to provide the reader with some idea of the researches and studies which are being undertaken in India in the field of stress including attempts to understand ancient Indian efforts to deal with the problem of stress.

Studies Relating to Physical and Psycho-Physiological Disorders:

A very active area of stress research in India relates to the role played by stress in the onset of different types of physical disorders like coronary disorders, (myocardial infarction,) cancer and depression. This line of research on the role of stress and personality factors associated with stress proneness appears to be the most active and productive.

This line of research has brought together medical scientists, physiologists and psychologists. Some of the studies that can be mentioned in this regard are those of : Ashok Kumar al; Bhargava, S.C. et al, Bhaskar Naidu & Venkat Ramaiah; Khorana, S; Rama Rao M.V., .et al; Katiyar M. et al; Shanmugam T.E.; Srivastava S et al; and Venkob Rao. The studies relate to life events, which are stress producing.

Another line of investigation has been devoted to the identification of the various factors and events and experiences in life that can pre-dispose an individual to develop stress.

Some studies along these lines are those of Singh, S.P. et al Venkob Rao & Nammalvar; Bhaskar Naidu; Venkat Ramaiah; Harim Kumar & Indira, R. Chatopadyay RK. & Das, M. It may thus be seen that the second line of investigations concerned with life experiences associated with stress and also their relationship to certain types of disorders, like depression, is also fairly rigorous and active.

Other Lines of Research:

Another set of investigations has been involved in devising and standardizing different types of tools for assessing the amount of stress and also related personality dimensions like those of Gurumeeth Singh et al, and Singh, G. et al. Some of the other areas of research are stress in organisations, and different kinds of employment as seen in the studies of Rama Murthy et al. Sharma & Sharma and Srivastava, A.K.

It may thus be seen that the research and study of stress, and its various aspects including causes, role in various disturbances, measurement problems and addictions are the few areas where Indian scientists have been taking interest.

Incidentally it may also be noted that a vast majority of these studies have been carried out in the post-1980 period indicating that stress research in India is of recent origin and is bound to gather more momentum.

Recently the author had the opportunity of looking into an unpublished piece of research which has attempted to relate stress experience to personality factors, conceptualized on the basis of ancient Indian ideas spelt out in the Sankhya philosophy and elaborated much more in the Bhagavad-Gita.

It is hoped that stress research in India will very soon expand to investigate the role of social and socio-psychological and present day cultural factors in the genesis of stress and also mechanisms which appear to be emerging for coping with stress.

Attribution Mode :

The concept of ‘attribution’ has also been employed to understand the phenomenon of crowding. Crowding results in a limitation of one’s ‘personal space’, ‘loss of control’ and other negative processes.

These become operative and explosive but only if the person concerned who is experiencing the above conditions tries to attribute them to some other source, human or otherwise. According to Worchell, crowding as a state thus results from attribution of personal discomfort to external agencies.

The focus of the person’s attention very often shifts under conditions of high density and the nature, and this kind of shift to a considerable extent, influences the nature and intensity of the negative effects of ‘felt crowding’. Worchell, Brown & Webb stated that the individual will experience stress only if he attributes it to the density and not otherwise.

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The impact of stress on body function: A review

Habib yaribeygi.

1 Neurosciences Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Yunes Panahi

2 Clinical Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Hedayat Sahraei

Thomas p. johnston.

3 Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA

Amirhossein Sahebkar

4 Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Any intrinsic or extrinsic stimulus that evokes a biological response is known as stress. The compensatory responses to these stresses are known as stress responses. Based on the type, timing and severity of the applied stimulus, stress can exert various actions on the body ranging from alterations in homeostasis to life-threatening effects and death. In many cases, the pathophysiological complications of disease arise from stress and the subjects exposed to stress, e.g. those that work or live in stressful environments, have a higher likelihood of many disorders. Stress can be either a triggering or aggravating factor for many diseases and pathological conditions. In this study, we have reviewed some of the major effects of stress on the primary physiological systems of humans.

Abbreviations

ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

CNS: Central nervous system

CRH: Corticotropin releasing hormone

GI: Gastrointestinal

LTP: Long-term potentiation

NMDA : N-methyl-D-aspartate

VTA: Ventral tegmental area

Stress and the Brain Function Complications

For a long time, researchers suggested that hormones have receptors just in the peripheral tissues and do not gain access to the central nervous system (CNS) (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). However, observations have demonstrated the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs (which are considered synthetic hormones) on behavioral and cognitive disorders and the phenomenon called “Steroid psychosis” (Clark et al., 1952[ 16 ]). In the early sixties, neuropeptides were recognized as compounds devoid of effects on the peripheral endocrine system. However, it was determined that hormones are able to elicit biological effects on different parts of the CNS and play an important role in behavior and cognition (De Kloet, 2000[ 22 ]). In 1968, McEven suggested for the first time that the brain of rodents is capable of responding to glucocorticoid (as one of the operators in the stress cascade). This hypothesis that stress can cause functional changes in the CNS was then accepted (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). From that time on, two types of corticotropic receptors (glucocorticosteroids and mineralocorticoids) were recognized (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). It was determined that the affinity of glucocorticosteroid receptors to cortisol and corticosterone was about one tenth of that of mineralocorticoids (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). The hippocampus area has both types of receptors, while other points of the brain have only glucocorticosteroid receptors (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]).

The effects of stress on the nervous system have been investigated for 50 years (Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]). Some studies have shown that stress has many effects on the human nervous system and can cause structural changes in different parts of the brain (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Chronic stress can lead to atrophy of the brain mass and decrease its weight (Sarahian et al., 2014[ 100 ]). These structural changes bring about differences in the response to stress, cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Of course, the amount and intensity of the changes are different according to the stress level and the duration of stress (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). However, it is now obvious that stress can cause structural changes in the brain with long-term effects on the nervous system (Reznikov et al., 2007[ 89 ]). Thus, it is highly essential to investigate the effects of stress on different aspects of the nervous system (Table 1 (Tab. 1) ; References in Table 1: Lupien et al., 2001[ 63 ]; Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]; Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]; Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]; Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]; Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]; Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]; Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]; Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

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Stress and Memory

Memory is one of the important functional aspects of the CNS and it is categorized as sensory, short term, and long-term. Short term memory is dependent on the function of the frontal and parietal lobes, while long-term memory depends on the function of large areas of the brain (Wood et al., 2000[ 121 ]). However, total function of memory and the conversion of short term memory to long-term memory are dependent on the hippocampus; an area of the brain that has the highest density of glucocorticosteroid receptors and also represents the highest level of response to stress (Scoville and Milner, 1957[ 107 ]; Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]). Therefore, during the past several decades, the relationship between the hippocampus and stress have been hotly debated (Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]; Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). In 1968, it was proven that there were cortisol receptors in the hippocampus of rats (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). Later, in 1982, by using specific agonists of glucocorticosteroid and mineralocorticoid receptors, the existence of these two receptors in the brain and hippocampus area of rats was proven (Veldhuis et al., 1982[ 119 ]). It should also be noted that the amygdala is very important to assessing the emotional experiences of memory (Roozendaal et al., 2009[ 91 ]).

The results of past studies have demonstrated the effect of stress on the process of memory (Ghodrat et al., 2014[ 32 ]). Various studies have shown that stress can cause functional and structural changes in the hippocampus section of the brain (McEwen, 1999[ 72 ]). These structural changes include atrophy and neurogenesis disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Also, chronic stress and, consequently, an increase in plasma cortisol, leads to a reduction in the number of dendritic branches (Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]) and the number of neurons (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]), as well as structural changes in synaptic terminals (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]) and decreased neurogenesis in the hippocampus tissue (Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]). Glucocorticosteroids can induce these changes by either effecting the cellular metabolism of neurons (Lawrence and Sapolsky, 1994[ 58 ]), or increasing the sensitivity of hippocampus cells to stimulatory amino acids (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]) and/or increasing the level of extracellular glutamate (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]).

High concentrations of stress hormones can cause declarative memory disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Animal studies have shown that stress can cause a reversible reduction in spatial memory as a result of atrophy of the hippocampus (Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]). In fact, high plasma concentrations of glucocorticosteroids for extended periods of time can cause atrophy of the hippocampus leading to memory disorders (Issa et al., 1990[ 45 ]). Additionally, people with either Cushing's syndrome (with an increased secretion of glucocorticosteroids), or people who receive high dosages of exogenous synthetic anti-inflammatory drugs, are observed to have atrophy of the hippocampus and associated memory disorders (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]). MRI images taken from the brains of people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have demonstrated a reduction in the volume of the hippocampus along with neurophysiologic effects such as a weak verbal memory (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Several human studies have suggested that even common therapeutic doses of glucocorticosteroids and dexamethasone can cause problems with explicit memory (Keenan et al., 1995[ 49 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). Thus, there is an inverse relationship between the level of cortisol and memory (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]), such that increasing levels of plasma cortisol following prolonged stress leads to a reduction in memory (Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]), which improves when the level of plasma cortisol decreases (Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]).

Stress also has negative effects on learning. Results from hippocampus-dependent loading data demonstrate that subjects are not as familiar with a new environment after having been exposed to a new environment (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Moreover, adrenal steroids lead to alteration in long-term potentiation (LTP), which is an important process in memory formation (Bliss and Lømo, 1973[ 7 ]).

Two factors are involved in the memory process during stress. The first is noradrenaline, which creates emotional aspects of memories in the basolateral amygdala area (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Secondly, this process is facilitated by corticosteroids. However, if the release of corticosteroids occurs a few hours earlier, it causes inhibition of the amygdala and corresponding behaviors (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Thus, there is a mutual balance between these two hormones for creating a response in the memory process (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]).

Stress does not always affect memory. Sometimes, under special conditions, stress can actually improve memory (McEwen and Lupien, 2002[ 71 ]). These conditions include non-familiarity, non-predictability, and life-threatening aspects of imposed stimulation. Under these specific conditions, stress can temporarily improve the function of the brain and, therefore, memory. In fact, it has been suggested that stress can sharpen memory in some situations (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]). For example, it has been shown that having to take a written examination can improve memory for a short period of time in examination participants. Interestingly, this condition is associated with a decrease in the level of cortisol in the saliva (Vedhara et al., 2000[ 118 ]). Other studies have shown that impending stress before learning occurs can also lead to either an increase in the power of memory (Domes et al., 2002[ 27 ]; Schwabe et al., 2008[ 102 ]), or decrease in the capacity for memory (Diamond et al., 2006[ 26 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). This paradox results from the type of imposed stress and either the degree of emotional connection to the stressful event (Payne et al., 2007[ 83 ]; Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]), or the period of time between the imposing stress and the process of learning (Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]).

The process of strengthening memory is usually reinforced after stress (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Various studies on animal and human models have shown that administration of either glucocorticosteroids, or stress shortly after learning has occurred facilitates memory (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Also, it has been shown that glucocorticosteroids (not mineralocorticoids) are necessary to improve learning and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]). However, the retrieval of events in memory after exposure to stress will be decreased (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]), which may result from the competition of updated data for storage in memory in a stressful state (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). Some investigations have shown that either exposure to stress, or injection of glucocorticosteroids before a test to assess retention, decreases the power of memory in humans and rodents (Schwabe and Wolf, 2009[ 104 ]).

In summary, it has been concluded that the effect of stress on memory is highly dependent on the time of exposure to the stressful stimulus and, in terms of the timing of the imposed stress, memory can be either better or worse (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Moreover, recent studies have shown that using a specific-timed schedule of exposure to stress not only affects hippocampus-dependent memory, but also striatum-dependent memory, which highlights the role of timing of the imposed stressful stimulus (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]).

Stress, Cognition and Learning

Cognition is another important feature of brain function. Cognition means reception and perception of perceived stimuli and its interpretation, which includes learning, decision making, attention, and judgment (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Stress has many effects on cognition that depend on its intensity, duration, origin, and magnitude (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Similar to memory, cognition is mainly formed in the hippocampus, amygdala, and temporal lobe (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). The net effect of stress on cognition is a reduction in cognition and thus, it is said that any behavioral steps undertaken to reduce stress leads to increase in cognition (Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]). In fact, stress activates some physiological systems, such as the autonomic nervous system, central neurotransmitter and neuropeptide system, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, which have direct effects on neural circuits in the brain involved with data processing (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Activation of stress results in the production and release of glucocorticosteroids. Because of the lipophilic properties of glucocorticosteroids, they can diffuse through the blood-brain barrier and exert long-term effects on processing and cognition (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]).

It appears that being exposed to stress can cause pathophysiologic changes in the brain, and these changes can be manifested as behavioral, cognitive, and mood disorders (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). In fact, studies have shown that chronic stress can cause complications such as increased IL-6 and plasma cortisol, but decreased amounts of cAMP responsive element binding protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is very similar to what is observed in people with depression and mood disorders that exhibit a wide range of cognitive problems (Song et al., 2006[ 114 ]). Additionally, the increased concentrations of inflammatory factors, like interleukins and TNF-α (which play an important role in creating cognitive disorders), proves a physiologic relationship between stress and mood-based cognitive disorders (Solerte et al., 2000[ 113 ]; Marsland et al., 2006[ 68 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). Studies on animals suggest that cognitive disorders resulting from stress are created due to neuroendocrine and neuroamine factors and neurodegenerative processes (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). However, it should be noted that depression may not always be due to the over activation of the physiological-based stress response (Osanloo et al., 2016[ 81 ]).

Cognitive disorders following exposure to stress have been reported in past studies (Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). Stress has effects on cognition both acutely (through catecholamines) and chronically (through glucocorticosteroids) (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). Acute effects are mainly caused by beta-adrenergic effects, while chronic effects are induced in a long-term manner by changes in gene expression mediated by steroids (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In general, many mechanisms modulate the effects of stress on cognition (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]; Mendl, 1999[ 75 ]). For instance, adrenal steroids affect the function of the hippocampus during cognition and memory retrieval in a biphasic manner (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In chronic stress, these steroids can destroy neurons with other stimulatory neurotransmitters (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Exposure to stress can also cause disorders in hippocampus-related cognition; specifically, spatial memory (Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Sandi et al., 2003[ 96 ]). Additionally, stress can halt or decrease the genesis of neurons in the dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus (this area is one of the limited brain areas in which neurogenesis occurs in adults) (Gould and Tanapat, 1999[ 34 ]; Köhler et al., 2010[ 54 ]). Although age is a factor known to affect cognition, studies on animals have demonstrated that young rats exposed to high doses of adrenal steroids show the same level of decline in their cognition as older adult animals with normal plasma concentrations of glucocorticoids (Landfield et al., 1978[ 57 ]). Also, a decrease in the secretion of glucocorticosteroids causes preservation of spatial memory in adults and has also been shown to have neuroprotective effects (Montaron et al., 2006[ 78 ]). Other studies have shown that stress (or the injection of adrenal steroids) results in varied effects on cognition. For instance, injection of hydrocortisone at the time of its maximum plasma concentration (in the afternoon) leads to a decrease in reaction time and improves cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

In summary, the adverse effects of stress on cognition are diverse and depend on the type, timing, intensity, and duration (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Generally, it is believed that mild stress facilitates an improvement in cognitive function, especially in the case of virtual or verbal memory. However, if the intensity of stress passes beyond a predetermined threshold (which is different in each individual), it causes cognitive disorders, especially in memory and judgment. The disruption to memory and judgment is due to the effects of stress on the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Of course, it must be realized that factors like age and gender may also play a role in some cognitive disorders (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Importantly, it should be emphasized that different people may exhibit varied responses in cognition when exposed to the very same stressful stimulus (Hatef et al., 2015[ 39 ]).

Stress and Immune System Functions

The relationship between stress and the immune system has been considered for decades (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]). The prevailing attitude between the association of stress and immune system response has been that people under stress are more likely to have an impaired immune system and, as a result, suffer from more frequent illness (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Also, old anecdotes describing resistance of some people to severe disease using the power of the mind and their thought processes, has promoted this attitude (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). In about 200 AC, Aelius Galenus (Galen of Pergamon) declared that melancholic women (who have high levels of stress and, thus, impaired immune function) are more likely to have cancer than women who were more positive and exposed to less stress (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). This may be the first recorded case about the relationship between the immune system and stress. In an old study in the early 1920's, researchers found that the activity of phagocytes in tuberculosis decreased when emotional stress was induced. In fact, it was also suggested that living with stress increases the risk of tuberculosis by suppressing the immune system (Ishigami, 1919[ 44 ]). Following this study, other researchers suggested that the probability of disease appearance increases following a sudden, major, and extremely stressful life style change (Holmes and Rahe, 1967[ 41 ]; Calabrese et al., 1987[ 12 ]).

Over the past several decades, there have been many studies investigating the role of stress on immune system function (Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]; Segerstrom and Miller, 2004[ 109 ]). These studies have shown that stress mediators can pass through the blood-brain barrier and exert their effects on the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Thus, the effect of stress on the immune system is now an accepted relationship or association.

Stress can affect the function of the immune system by modulating processes in the CNS and neuroendocrine system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser, 1991[ 51 ]). Following stress, some neuroendocrine and neural responses result in the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and other stress mediators (Carrasco and Van de Kar, 2003[ 13 ]). However, evidence suggests that the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system, also plays a role in releasing these mediators (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). For instance, thymus peptides, such as thymopentine, thymopoietin, and thymosin fraction-5, cause an increase in ACTH production (Goya et al., 1993[ 36 ]). Additionally, the existence of CRH in thymus has been proven (Redei, 1992[ 87 ]). It has also been proven that interleukin-1 released from phagocytes has a role in ACTH secretion (Berkenbosch et al., 1987[ 4 ]). On the other hand, natural or synthetic glucocorticosteroids (which are the final stress operators) are known as anti-inflammatory drugs and immune suppressants and their role in the inhibition of lymphocytes and macrophages has been demonstrated as well (Elenkov et al., 1999[ 28 ]; Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Moreover, their role in inhibiting the production of cytokines and other immune mediators and decreasing their effect on target cells during exposure to stress has also been determined (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

In addition to adrenal steroids, other hormones are affected during stress. For example, the secretion of growth hormone will be halted during severe stress. A study showed that long-term administration of CRH into the brain ventricles leads to a cessation in the release of growth hormone (Rivier and Vale, 1985[ 90 ]). Stress also causes the release of opioid peptides to be changed during the time period over which the person is exposed to stress (McCarthy et al., 2001[ 70 ]). In fact, stress modifies the secretion of hormones that play a critical role in the function of the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). To date, it has been shown that various receptors for a variety of hormones involved in immune system function are adversely affected by stress. For example, ACTH, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), substance P, growth hormone, prolactin, and steroids all have receptors in various tissues of the immune system and can modulate its function (De la Fuente et al., 1996[ 24 ]; Gala, 1991[ 30 ]; Mantyh, 1991[ 67 ]). In addition, active immune cells are also able to secrete several hormones; thus, some researchers believe that these hormones, as mediators of immune system, play a significant role in balancing its function (Blalock et al., 1985[ 6 ]).

Severe stress can lead to malignancy by suppressing the immune system (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). In fact, stress can decrease the activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and lead to growth of malignant cells, genetic instability, and tumor expansion (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Studies have shown that the plasma concentration of norepinephrine, which increases after the induction stress, has an inverse relationship with the immune function of phagocytes and lymphocytes (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Lastly, catecholamines and opioids that are released following stress have immune-suppressing properties (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

Stress and the Function of the Cardiovascular System

The existence of a positive association between stress and cardiovascular disease has been verified (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Stress, whether acute or chronic, has a deleterious effect on the function of the cardiovascular system (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Kario et al., 2003[ 48 ]; Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are not only stimulatory, but also inhibitory in nature (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). It can be postulated that stress causes autonomic nervous system activation and indirectly affects the function of the cardiovascular system (Lazarus et al., 1963[ 59 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). If these effects occur upon activation of the sympathetic nervous system, then it mainly results in an increase in heart rate, strength of contraction, vasodilation in the arteries of skeletal muscles, a narrowing of the veins, contraction of the arteries in the spleen and kidneys, and decreased sodium excretion by the kidneys (Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). Sometimes, stress activates the parasympathetic nervous system (Pagani et al., 1991[ 82 ]). Specifically, if it leads to stimulation of the limbic system, it results in a decrease, or even a total stopping of the heart-beat, decreased contractility, reduction in the guidance of impulses by the heart stimulus-transmission network, peripheral vasodilatation, and a decline in blood pressure (Cohen et al., 2000[ 17 ]). Finally, stress can modulate vascular endothelial cell function and increase the risk of thrombosis and ischemia, as well as increase platelet aggregation (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

The initial effect of stress on heart function is usually on the heart rate (Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). Depending upon the direction of the shift in the sympatho-vagal response, the heart beat will either increase or decrease (Hall et al., 2004[ 38 ]). The next significant effect of stress on cardiovascular function is blood pressure (Laitinen et al., 1999[ 56 ]). Stress can stimulate the autonomic sympathetic nervous system to increase vasoconstriction, which can mediate an increase in blood pressure, an increase in blood lipids, disorders in blood clotting, vascular changes, atherogenesis; all, of which, can cause cardiac arrhythmias and subsequent myocardial infarction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]; Sgoifo et al., 1998[ 111 ]). These effects from stress are observed clinically with atherosclerosis and leads to an increase in coronary vasoconstriction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Of course, there are individual differences in terms of the level of autonomic-based responses due to stress, which depends on the personal characteristics of a given individual (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Thus, training programs for stress management are aimed at reducing the consequences of stress and death resulting from heart disease (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). In addition, there are gender-dependent differences in the cardiovascular response to stress and, accordingly, it has been estimated that women begin to exhibit heart disease ten years later that men, which has been attributed to the protective effects of the estrogen hormone (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

Studies have shown that psychological stress can cause alpha-adrenergic stimulation and, consequently, increase heart rate and oxygen demand (Rozanski et al., 1998[ 92 ], 1999[ 93 ]; Jiang et al., 1996[ 46 ]). As a result, coronary vasoconstriction is enhanced, which may increase the risk of myocardial infarction (Yeung et al., 1991[ 124 ]; Boltwood et al., 1993[ 8 ]; Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). Several studies have demonstrated that psychological stress decreases the microcirculation in the coronary arteries by an endothelium-dependent mechanism and increases the risk of myocardial infarction (Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). On the other hand, mental stress indirectly leads to potential engagement in risky behaviors for the heart, such as smoking, and directly leads to stimulation of the neuroendocrine system as part of the autonomic nervous system (Hornstein, 2004[ 43 ]). It has been suggested that severe mental stress can result in sudden death (Pignalberi et al., 2002[ 84 ]). Generally, stress-mediated risky behaviors that impact cardiovascular health can be summarized into five categories: an increase in the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, initiation and progression of myocardial ischemia, development of cardiac arrhythmias, stimulation of platelet aggregation, and endothelial dysfunction (Wu, 2001[ 123 ]).

Stress and Gastrointestinal Complications

The effects of stress on nutrition and the gastrointestinal (GI) system can be summarized with two aspects of GI function.

First, stress can affect appetite (Bagheri Nikoo et al., 2014[ 2 ]; Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]). This effect is related to involvement of either the ventral tegmental area (VTA), or the amygdala via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors (Nasihatkon et al., 2014[ 80 ]; Sadeghi et al., 2015[ 94 ]). However, it should also be noted that nutrition patterns have effects on the response to stress (Ghanbari et al., 2015[ 31 ]), and this suggests a bilateral interaction between nutrition and stress.

Second, stress adversely affects the normal function of GI tract. There are many studies concerning the effect of stress on the function of the GI system (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). For instance, studies have shown that stress affects the absorption process, intestinal permeability, mucus and stomach acid secretion, function of ion channels, and GI inflammation (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]). Stress also increases the response of the GI system to inflammation and may reactivate previous inflammation and accelerate the inflammation process by secretion of mediators such as substance P (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). As a result, there is an increase in the permeability of cells and recruitment of T lymphocytes. Lymphocyte aggregation leads to the production of inflammatory markers, activates key pathways in the hypothalamus, and results in negative feedback due to CRH secretion, which ultimately results in the appearance of GI inflammatory diseases (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). This process can reactivate previous silent colitis (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]). Mast cells play a crucial role in stress-induced effects on the GI system, because they cause neurotransmitters and other chemical factors to be released that affect the function of the GI system (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress can also alter the functional physiology of the intestine (Kiliaan et al., 1998[ 52 ]). Many inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn's disease and other ulcerative-based diseases of the GI tract, are associated with stress (Hommes et al., 2002[ 42 ]). It has been suggested that even childhood stress can lead to these diseases in adulthood (Schwartz and Schwartz, 1983[ 106 ]). Irritable bowel syndrome, which is a disease with an inflammatory origin, is highly related to stress (Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]). Studies on various animals suggest the existence of inflammatory GI diseases following induction of severe stress (Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]; Collins et al., 1996[ 19 ]). Additionally, pharmacological interventions, in an attempt to decrease the response of CRH to stress, have been shown to result in an increase in GI diseases in rats (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]).

Altering the permeability of the mucosal membrane by perturbing the functions of mucosal mast cells may be another way that stress causes its effects on the GI system, since this is a normal process by which harmful and toxic substances are removed from the intestinal lumen (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]). Also, stress can both decrease the removal of water from the lumen, as well as induce sodium and chloride secretion into the lumen. This most likely occurs by increasing the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system (Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]). Moreover, physical stress, such as trauma or surgery, can increase luminal permeability (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]) (Table 2 (Tab. 2) ; References in Table 2: Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]; Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]; Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]; Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]).

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Stress also affects movement of the GI tract. In this way, it prevents stomach emptying and accelerates colonic motility (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). In the case of irritable bowel syndrome, stress increases the movement (contractility and motility) of the large intestine (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Previous studies have revealed that CRH increases movement in the terminal sections of the GI tract and decreases the movements in the proximal sections of the GI tract (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). A delay in stomach emptying is likely accomplished through CRH-2 receptors, while type 1 receptors affect the colon (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). The effects produced by CRH are so prominent that CRH is now considered an ideal candidate for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (Martinez and Taché, 2006[ 69 ]). When serotonin is released in response to stress (Chaouloff, 2000[ 14 ]), it leads to an increase in the motility of the colon by stimulating 5HT-3 receptors (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Moreover, it has also been suggested that stress, especially mental and emotional types of stress, increase visceral sensitivity and activate mucosal mast cells (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Stimulation of the CNS by stress has a direct effect on GI-specific nervous system ( i.e. , the myenteric system or plexus) and causes the above mentioned changes in the movements of the GI tract (Bhatia and Tandon, 2005[ 5 ]). In fact, stress has a direct effect on the brain-bowel axis (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]). Various clinical studies have suggested a direct effect of stress on irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal inflammation, and peptic ulcers (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

In conclusion, the effects of stress on the GI system can be classified into six different actions: GI tract movement disorders, increased visceral irritability, altered rate and extent of various GI secretions, modified permeability of the intestinal barrier, negative effects on blood flow to the GI tract, and increased intestinal bacteria counts (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress and the Endocrine System

There is a broad and mutual relationship between stress and the endocrine system. On one hand, stress has many subtle and complex effects on the activity of the endocrine system (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]; Charmandari et al., 2005[ 15 ]), while on the other hand, the endocrine system has many effects on the response to stress (Ulrich-Lai and Herman, 2009[ 117 ]; Selye, 1956[ 110 ]). Stress can either activate, or change the activity of, many endocrine processes associated with the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands, the adrenergic system, gonads, thyroid, and the pancreas (Tilbrook et al., 2000[ 116 ]; Brown-Grant et al., 1954[ 11 ]; Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]; Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). In fact, it has been suggested that it is impossible to separate the response to stress from the functions of the endocrine system. This premise has been advanced due to the fact that even a minimal amount of stress can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which itself is intricately involved with the activation of several different hormone secreting systems (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]). In different locations throughout this article, we have already discussed the effects of stress on hormones and various endocrine factors and, thus, they will not be further addressed.

Altogether, stress may induce both beneficial and harmful effects. The beneficial effects of stress involve preserving homeostasis of cells/species, which leads to continued survival. However, in many cases, the harmful effects of stress may receive more attention or recognition by an individual due to their role in various pathological conditions and diseases. As has been discussed in this review, various factors, for example, hormones, neuroendocrine mediators, peptides, and neurotransmitters are involved in the body's response to stress. Many disorders originate from stress, especially if the stress is severe and prolonged. The medical community needs to have a greater appreciation for the significant role that stress may play in various diseases and then treat the patient accordingly using both pharmacological (medications and/or nutraceuticals) and non-pharmacological (change in lifestyle, daily exercise, healthy nutrition, and stress reduction programs) therapeutic interventions. Important for the physician providing treatment for stress is the fact that all individuals vary in their response to stress, so a particular treatment strategy or intervention appropriate for one patient may not be suitable or optimal for a different patient.

Yunes Panahi and Amirhossein Sahebkar (Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran, P.O. Box: 91779-48564, Iran; Tel: 985118002288, Fax: 985118002287, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) contributed equally as corresponding authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that have no conflict of interest in this study.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the "Neurosciences Research Center of Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences" and the “Clinical Research Development Center of Baqiyatallah (a.s.) Hospital” for providing technical supports.

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An Overview of Stress Management

Stress management.

Stress management is the range of techniques, strategies, and therapies designed to help people control their stress. This can include lowering acute stress, but it is often aimed at lowering chronic stress to improve health, happiness, and overall well-being. Stress management strategies may include:

Deep breathing
Eating a healthy diet
Getting enough sleep
Guided visualization
Hobbies and leisure activities
Mindfulness
Positive thinking
Progressive muscle relaxation
Psychotherapy
Social support

We all experience stress in our lives. Because many health problems are caused or influenced by stress, it's essential to understand how stress affects your body and learn effective stress management techniques to make stress work for you rather than against you.

What Is Stress?

Stress is your body’s response to changes in your life. Because life involves constant change—ranging from everyday, routine changes like commuting from home to work to adapting to major life changes like marriage, divorce, or death of a loved one—there is no avoiding stress.

Your goal shouldn't be to eliminate all stress but to eliminate unnecessary stress and effectively manage the rest. There are some common causes of stress that many people experience, but each person is different.

Stress can come from many sources, which are known as " stressors ." Because our experience of what is considered "stressful" is created by our unique perceptions of what we encounter in life (based on our own mix of personality traits, available resources, and habitual thought patterns), a situation may be perceived as "stressful" by one person and merely "challenging" by someone else.

Simply put, one person's stress trigger may not register as stressful to someone else. That said, certain situations tend to cause more stress in most people and can increase the risk of burnout .

For example, when we find ourselves in situations where there are high demands on us but we little control and few choices, we are likely to experience stress. We might also feel stress when we don't feel equipped; where we may be harshly judged by others; and where consequences for failure are steep or unpredictable.

Many people are stressed by their jobs , relationships , financial issues , and health problems, as well as more mundane things like clutter or busy schedules . Learning skills to cope with these stressors can help reduce your experience of stress.

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Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares what to do when financial stress is impacting your mental health. Click below to listen now.

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Just as stress is perceived differently by each of us, stress affects us all in ways that are unique to us. One person may experience headaches, while another may find stomach upset is a common reaction, and a third may experience any of a number of other symptoms.

While we all react to stress in our own ways, there is a long list of commonly experienced effects of stress that range from mild to life-threatening. Stress can affect immunity, which can impact virtually all areas of health. Stress can affect mood in many ways as well. Creating a stress management plan is often one part of a plan for overall wellness.

If you find yourself experiencing physical symptoms you think may be related to stress, talk to your doctor to be sure you are doing what you can to safeguard your health. Symptoms that may be exacerbated by stress are not "all in your head" and need to be taken seriously.

Stress can be effectively managed in many different ways. The best stress management plans usually include a mix of stress relievers that address stress physically and psychologically and help to develop resilience and coping skills.

7 Highly Effective Stress Relievers

Use quick stress relievers.

Some stress relief techniques can work in just a few minutes to calm the body's stress response. These techniques offer a "quick fix" that helps you feel calmer at the moment, and this can help in several ways.

When your stress response is not triggered, you may approach problems more thoughtfully and proactively. You may be less likely to lash out at others out of frustration, which can keep your relationships healthier. Nipping your stress response in the bud can also keep you from experiencing chronic stress.

Quick stress relievers like breathing exercises, for example, may not build your resilience to future stress or minimize the stressors that you face. But they can help calm the body's physiology once the stress response is triggered.

Develop Stress-Relieving Habits

Some techniques are less convenient to use when you are in the middle of a stressful situation. But if you practice them regularly, they can help you manage stress in general by being less reactive to it and more able to reverse your stress response quickly and easily.

Long-term healthy habits, like exercise or regular meditation , can help to promote resilience toward stressors if you make them a regular part of your life. Communication skills and other lifestyle skills can be helpful in managing stressors and changing how we feel from "overwhelmed" to "challenged" or even "stimulated."

Eliminate Stressors When You Can

You may not be able to completely eliminate stress from your life or even the biggest stressors, but there are areas where you can minimize it and get it to a manageable level.

Any stress that you can cut out can minimize your overall stress load. For example, ending even one toxic relationship can help you more effectively deal with other stress you experience because you may feel less overwhelmed.

Discovering a wide variety of stress management techniques, and then choosing a mix that fits your needs, can be a key strategy for effective stress relief.

Stress FAQs

There are a number of common questions that you might ask about stress and stress management.

Is All Stress Harmful to Health?

There are several different types of stress , and not all are harmful. Eustress , for example, is a positive form of stress. But chronic stress has been linked to many serious health issues and is the type of negative stress most often mentioned in the news. While we want to manage or eliminate negative stress, we also want to keep positive forms of stress in our lives to help us remain vital and alive.

However, if we experience too much stress in our lives, even "good" stress can contribute to excessive stress levels, which can lead to feeling overwhelmed or having your stress response triggered for too long. This is why it is still important to learn to relax your body and mind periodically and cut down on unnecessary stress whenever possible.

How Can I Tell When I’m Too Stressed?

Stress affects us all in different ways, not all of which are negative. In fact, the stress of an exciting life can actually serve as a good motivator and keep things interesting. When stress levels get too intense, however, there are some stress symptoms that many people experience.

For example, headaches, irritability, and "fuzzy thinking" can all be symptoms that you’re under too much stress. While not everybody who’s under stress will experience these specific symptoms, many will.

If you find that you don't realize how stressed you are until you are overwhelmed, it's important to learn to notice your body's subtle cues and your own behavior, almost like an outside observer might. To notice how your body is reacting to stress, you can try this body scan meditation (it helps relax at the same time).

What Can I Do When I Feel Overwhelmed?

We all feel overwhelmed from time to time; that’s normal. While it’s virtually impossible to eliminate times when events conspire and the body’s stress response is triggered, there are ways that you can quickly reverse your body’s reaction to stress, buffering the damage to your health and keeping your thinking clear, so you can more effectively deal with what’s going on in the moment.

Is There a Way to Be Less Affected by Stress?

By practicing regular stress management techniques, you can eliminate some of the stress you feel and make yourself more resilient in the face of stress in the future. There are several things you can try, ranging from a morning walk to an evening journaling practice to just making more time for friends. The trick is to find something that fits with your lifestyle and personality, so it’s easier to stick with.

National Institute of Mental Health. 5 Things You Should Know About Stress .

Ma X, Yue ZQ, Gong ZQ, et al. The effect of diaphragmatic breathing on attention, negative affect and stress in healthy adults . Front Psychol . 2017;8:874. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00874

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Medicine. Mind and Body Approaches for Stress: What the Science Says . 2020.

Bota PG, Miropolskiy E, Nguyen V. Stop caretaking the borderline or narcissist: How to end the drama and get on with life . Ment Illn . 2017;9(1):6985. doi:10.4081/mi.2017.6985

Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WE. Principles and Practice of Stress Management . 3rd edition. New York: The Guilford Press; 2007.

By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

11 healthy ways to handle life’s stressors

When stress becomes unmanageable, try these evidence-based tools to tackle it in healthy ways

Exercise and Fitness
Sport and Rehabilitation

Stressful experiences are a normal part of life, and the stress response is a survival mechanism that primes us to respond to threats. Some stress is positive: Imagine standing in front of a crowd to give a speech and hitting it out of the park. Stressful? Certainly. But also challenging and satisfying.

But when a stressor is negative and can’t be fought off or avoided—such as layoffs at work or a loved one’s medical crisis—or when the experience of stress becomes chronic , our biological responses to stress can impair our physical and mental health.

Fortunately, there are many evidence-based tools to help combat the negative effects of stress in healthy ways. They recommend that you:

Try to eliminate the stressors : Whether or not you experience an intolerable level of psychological stress depends on the intensity of the situation and also the person experiencing it. How you perceive and think about a stressor can also make a big impact on how you respond. It’s not always possible to escape a stressful situation or avoid a problem, but you can try to reduce the stress you are feeling. Evaluate whether you can change the situation that is causing you stress, perhaps by dropping some responsibility, relaxing your standards, or asking for help.
Cultivate social support : Strong social support can improve resilience to stress . Reach out strategically. Some friends or family members may be good at listening and sympathizing. Others might excel at practical help, like bringing over a home-cooked meal or covering an hour of child care. Giving support can also increase positive emotions and decrease negative emotions. Just make sure your relationships stay in balance. A friend who requires support but never gives it may increase your stress level. [ Related : The science of why friendships keep us healthy ]
Seek good nutrition : When confronted with a stressor, the central nervous system releases adrenaline and cortisol, which affects the digestive tract among other physiological changes. Acute stress can kill the appetite, but the release of the hormone cortisol during chronic stress can cause fat and sugar cravings. Research also suggests that high cortisol combined with high sugar consumption may prompt the deposition of fat around our internal organs —visceral fat that is associated with cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. A diet high in a variety of nutrients can both protect health and provide more physical energy to deal with challenges. No need to go vegan or swear off cookies—just aim to consume a rainbow of fruits and vegetables as part of your daily diet. Avoid using substances such as alcohol to dampen the stress response since substances do not solve the root of the problem and can have serious health effects. [ Related : That salad isn’t just good for your nutrition—it may help stave off depression ]
Relax your muscles : Because stress causes muscles to tense, being stressed out can create tension headaches, backaches, and general fatigue. Combat stress and these symptoms with stretches, massage, or warm baths. Or try progressive muscle relaxation , a method that has been shown to reduce anxiety and improve overall mental health. To practice progressive muscle relaxation, get in a comfortable position and choose a muscle group, like your lower leg muscles (most practitioners recommend starting with the lower body and working your way up). Inhale and contract the muscles for five to 10 seconds, then exhale and release the muscles suddenly. Relax for 10 or more seconds and then move on to the next muscle group. Another option is passive progressive muscle relaxation. This technique is similar to progressive muscle relaxation but skips the tensing step. Instead, simply picture each muscle group one at a time and focus on relaxing that portion of the body.

Meditate : A strong body of research shows that mindful meditation can reduce psychological stress and anxiety—even short-term mindfulness meditation programs work . To get started, set aside five minutes in a quiet place to sit and breathe. Focus on the present moment; if stray thoughts intrude, acknowledge them and then let them go. Don’t judge yourself for any mental wavering. Gently refocus and bring the attention back to the present moment.
Protect your sleep : Daytime stress affects nighttime sleep. Making matters worse, losing shuteye can affect both cognition and mood. How to sleep better? Try to have a consistent sleep routine that allows time to wind down before lights out. Meditation and relaxation can help with insomnia. Also, avoid caffeine and alcohol in the late afternoon and evening. Put down your screens, as blue light can suppress the sleepy hormone melatonin (and checking social media may ramp up your emotions.) Finally, move your body during the day: A large body of research suggests that physical activity can improve sleep , especially for middle-aged and older adults. [ Related : APA’s health advisory on social media use in children and teens ]
Get physical : Brisk movement can not only improve sleep, it can directly combat stress. In one study, working adults who participated in moderate physical activity had half the perceived stress as working adults who did not participate. Physical activity may also cancel out some of the negative effects of stress , including the impact of stress on the immune system. Adding physical activity needn’t be expensive or complex: A brisk 30-minute walk or a dance session in the living room can do the trick. [ Related : Want to boost your mental health? Take a walk ]
Take a moment in nature : Studies conducted in multiple countries have found that green space improves mood . Even nature videos can speed the recovery from stress compared with videos of urban scenes. Taking a moment to notice nature—even in the form of a bustling city park—can refocus and calm your mind.
Keep your pleasurable activities : When life gets overwhelming, people often drop their leisure activities first. But cutting yourself off from pleasure can be counterproductive. Even when time is tight, look for opportunities to do something for yourself, whether that means reading a novel, singing along to your favorite tunes, or streaming your favorite comedy on Netflix. Humor and laughter can benefit both mental and physical health.
Reframe your thinking : One of the most research-supported treatments for stress and anxiety is cognitive behavioral therapy, or CBT. At the root of this therapy approach is the understanding that our thoughts influence our emotions, which in turn influence our behaviors. Reframing your thoughts around a stressor can help manage your emotions, reducing feelings of stress . Some tips: If you feel yourself spiraling into imagining worst-case scenarios, stop and put your mind elsewhere. Set realistic expectations for yourself. Strive for acceptance of situations outside of your control.
Seek help : If you feel overwhelmed and self-help isn’t helping, look for a psychologist or other mental health provider who can help you learn how to manage your stress effectively. He or she can help you identify situations or behaviors that contribute to your stress and then develop an action plan to change the stressors, change your environment, and change your responses.

Acute versus chronic stress

The experience of stress can be either acute or chronic. Acute stress usually occurs in response to a short-term stressor, like a car accident or an argument with your spouse. Acute stress can be very distressing, but it passes quickly and typically responds well to coping techniques like calming breathing or brisk physical activity.

Chronic stress occurs when stressors don’t let up. The roots of chronic stress can vary widely, from situations people can control or avoid (such as having a toxic friendship) to difficulties that are hard to escape (poverty, racism, or other discrimination). Because people respond differently to stressful circumstances, a situation that one person might find tolerable can become a source of chronic stress for another.

Chronic stress can damage both mental and physical health. Being chronically stressed may leave you feeling fatigued, sap your ability to concentrate, and cause headaches and digestive difficulties. People prone to irritable bowel syndrome often find that their symptoms spike with psychological stress . Though acute stress can heighten certain immune responses, the wear-and-tear of chronic stress is bad for the immune system . Chronic stress can also affect cardiac health, with multiple studies finding a link between chronic stress and the development of coronary artery disease .

The American Psychological Association gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Beverly Thorn, PhD, in developing this fact sheet.

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IMAGES

VIDEO

COMMENTS

Article contents

What Is Stress?

Social Stress Perspective

Categories of Stressors

Life Events

Chronic Stressors

Table 1. Problems Considered as Chronic Stressors

Daily Stressors

Table 2. Questions From the DISE

Table 3. The TLEQ and Its Prevalence Among Adults in the United States

Social Stress and Health: Exposure Versus Vulnerability

Psychological Stress Perspective

Psychological Stress and Appraisal

Coping Processes

Stress Appraisal and Coping Across Adulthood

Biological Stress Perspective

Activation of the Sympathetic-Adrenal Medullary System and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

Age, Exposure to Stressors, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis, and the Sympathetic-Adrenal Medullary System

Allostatic Load

Stress and Health: Integrating the Social, Psychological, and Biological Stress Perspectives

Further Reading

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Managing the Anxiety as Someone Who Hasn’t Been Tested or Is Negative But Still Fearful

The Shattered Tin Man Midst the Shock and Awe in Mid-21st Century Societies I: Shattering and Shock

Annual Review of Psychology

Most Read This Month

Psychology Discussion

Essay on Stress

Essay # 1. Introduction to Stress:

Essay # 2. Sources of Stress:

(i) Frustration :

(ii) Conflicts :

(iii) Pressure :

Essay # 3. Causes of Stress:

Essay # 4. Effects of Stress :

Essay # 5. Factors Affecting Stress:

Personality Factors:

Essay # 6. Manifestations of Stress :

Essay # 7. Stress Research:

Stress Research in India:

Studies Relating to Physical and Psycho-Physiological Disorders:

Other Lines of Research:

Related Articles:

The impact of stress on body function: A review

Yunes Panahi

Hedayat Sahraei

Amirhossein Sahebkar

Abbreviations

Stress and the Brain Function Complications

Stress and Memory

Stress, Cognition and Learning

Stress and Immune System Functions

Stress and the Function of the Cardiovascular System

Stress and Gastrointestinal Complications

Stress and the Endocrine System

Conflict of interest

Acknowledgement

An Overview of Stress Management

What Is Stress?

Press Play for Advice On Dealing With Money Issues

7 Highly Effective Stress Relievers

Develop Stress-Relieving Habits

Eliminate Stressors When You Can

Stress FAQs

Is All Stress Harmful to Health?

How Can I Tell When I’m Too Stressed?

What Can I Do When I Feel Overwhelmed?

Is There a Way to Be Less Affected by Stress?

11 healthy ways to handle life’s stressors

Acute versus chronic stress

Recommended Reading

Six Things Psychologists are Talking About

Speaking of Psychology

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