research proposal format for qualitative research

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Developing a Research Proposal for Qualitative Research: A Step-by-Step Guide

Creating a research proposal for qualitative studies can seem like a huge task. This guide will help you step by step. From understanding the basics to writing the final proposal, we will cover everything you need to know. By the end, you will have a clear plan to follow.

Key Takeaways

• Understanding the basics of qualitative research is important for a strong proposal.
• A clear research question guides your study and ensures it stays on track.
• Choosing the right methods and being ethical are key parts of your research design.
• Recruiting the right participants and using proper sampling methods are crucial.
• Analyzing data carefully and presenting your findings clearly is essential.

Understanding the Foundations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is essential for exploring complex social phenomena. It provides an in-depth understanding and rich data analysis, complementing quantitative research. Choosing the right research methodology for your Ph.D. thesis is crucial for obtaining meaningful results.

Formulating a Research Question

Identifying the research problem.

The first step in formulating qualitative research questions is to have a clear understanding of what you aim to discover or understand through your research. How much do we know about the problem? What are the gaps in our knowledge? How would new insights contribute to society or clinical practice? Why is this research worth doing? And who might have an interest in this topic?

Using the SPIDER Tool

The SPIDER tool is a useful framework for defining the research question. SPIDER stands for Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, and Research type. This tool helps in highlighting the gap in knowledge that your research aims to address. It ensures that your research question is focused and researchable, whether through primary or secondary sources.

Ensuring Feasibility and Relevance

After formulating the question(s), you must consider how you will answer it. Answering the question(s) will depend on the question, the design, and the research type. Your research question should be feasible to answer within a given timeframe and specific enough for you to answer thoroughly.

Designing the Research Methodology

After formulating your research question, you must consider how to answer it. Answering the question will depend on the question itself, the design, and the research type.

Selecting Appropriate Methods

Choosing the right methods is crucial. Each design method has pros and cons, and the selection depends on the question, the participants, and the time scale. For example, if you're looking at the experiences of someone who's had severe trauma or exploring a sensitive topic, a one-to-one interview is probably the most appropriate method to respect privacy.

Data Collection Techniques

Data collection is a vital part of your research design . You need to clearly explain your data collection methods so readers understand how you will conduct your study. This section should provide enough detail for readers to evaluate its validity and reliability. Poorly articulated research design can lead to misunderstandings and questions about your study's credibility.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in qualitative research. You must ensure that your study respects the rights and dignity of participants. This includes obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and being sensitive to the needs and vulnerabilities of your participants. Addressing these ethical issues is not just a formality but a fundamental part of your research design.

Recruiting and Sampling Participants

Defining the target population.

When defining your target population, it's crucial to set clear criteria that align with your research objectives . Quality over quantity is essential; recruiting the right participants ensures the integrity of your study. Sometimes, you might not reach your planned sample size, but it's better to have fewer participants who meet your criteria than to compromise your results.

Sampling Strategies

There is no magic number for how many people you should recruit for qualitative research. The sample sizes are usually smaller than in quantitative research and will depend on many variables. When writing a research proposal, provide justification and rationale for your chosen number of participants. Considerations include the scope of your study and the depth of data you aim to collect.

Recruitment Procedures

Recruitment can be done online via social media or through advertising posters in outpatient clinics. Choose the most convenient method that will link you to the most suitable people. For example, a social media advert might be ideal for a study on e-health, as your cohort should be comfortable using computers. Researchers should avoid directly approaching potential participants to prevent any feeling of obligation to take part. Instead, use a gatekeeper who can act as a go-between to advertise the study to potential participants who meet the criteria.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Coding and thematic analysis.

When we analyze qualitative data , we need systematic, rigorous, and transparent ways of manipulating our data in order to begin developing answers to our research questions. Coding is a crucial first step in this process. It involves labeling segments of data with codes that represent themes or patterns. Using software tools can make this task more efficient and help maintain consistency.

Ensuring Rigor and Trustworthiness

To ensure the rigor and trustworthiness of your analysis, you should employ strategies such as member checking, triangulation, and maintaining an audit trail. Member checking involves sharing your findings with participants to verify accuracy. Triangulation uses multiple data sources or methods to confirm findings. An audit trail documents the research process in detail, providing transparency.

Presenting Findings

Presenting your findings in a clear and organized manner is essential. Use direct quotes from participants to illustrate key themes and provide evidence for your interpretations. Tables can be helpful for summarizing data and highlighting important points. Remember to discuss the implications of your findings and how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge.

Writing the Research Proposal

When preparing a research proposal, it is essential to follow the specific guidelines provided by your institution or program. Some institutions may have additional requirements, such as excluding references, figures, or timelines from the page limit.

Structuring the Proposal

A research proposal is a document that describes the idea, importance, and method of the research. The format can vary widely among different higher education settings, different funders, and different organizations. When thinking of the research proposal, it's your tool to sell the research to probably an ethics committee or a research funder, so you want to show them why your research is important to be done. Here are some prompting questions to help with writing the background:

• What is the main problem or question your research aims to address?
• Why is this research important?
• What are the key objectives of your study?

Writing the Literature Review

The title of your research proposal can be different from the publishing title. It can be considered a working title that you can revisit after finishing the research proposal and amend if needed. "The title" should contain keywords of what your research encompasses, such as:

• The main topic of your research
• The specific aspect you are focusing on
• Any key terms or concepts

Developing a Timeline

When thinking about how to start thesis , setting clear goals, utilizing online databases, conducting interviews, and collecting relevant data are key steps. The length of your research proposal can vary. Make sure to include a timeline that outlines the major milestones of your research project. This can help you stay on track and ensure that you meet all deadlines.

By following these tips for researching and organizing your thesis , you can create a strong and compelling research proposal.

Addressing Ethical and Practical Issues

Informed consent.

When conducting qualitative research, obtaining informed consent is crucial. Participants must be fully aware of the study's purpose, procedures, and any potential risks. Mastering the interview process includes ensuring that participants understand their rights and can withdraw at any time without penalty.

Confidentiality and Anonymity

Protecting the privacy of participants is a key aspect of ethical research. Researchers must take steps to ensure that data is stored securely and that identifying information is kept confidential. This includes using pseudonyms and removing any details that could reveal a participant's identity.

Dealing with Practical Challenges

Qualitative research often involves addressing sensitive topics, which can present practical challenges. Researchers need to be prepared to handle emotional responses and provide support if needed. Additionally, defining the research scope clearly can help in managing time and resources effectively.

When tackling ethical and practical issues, it's important to have the right tools and guidance. Our step-by-step Thesis Action Plan is designed to help you navigate these challenges with ease. Whether you're struggling with sleepless nights or feeling overwhelmed, our resources are here to support you. Don't let stress hold you back any longer. Visit our website to learn more and take the first step towards a smoother thesis journey.

In conclusion, developing a qualitative research proposal is a detailed and thoughtful process that requires careful planning and consideration. By following the steps outlined in this guide, researchers can ensure that their proposals are comprehensive and well-structured. This not only helps in gaining approval from review boards but also sets a strong foundation for conducting meaningful and impactful research. Remember, the key to a successful research proposal lies in clarity, coherence, and a thorough understanding of the research topic. With dedication and attention to detail, anyone can master the art of crafting a qualitative research proposal.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a qualitative research proposal.

A qualitative research proposal is a document that outlines the idea, importance, and methods of your research. It helps to plan out how you will collect and analyze non-numerical data.

Why is it important to have a research question?

Having a research question is important because it guides your study. It helps you focus on what you want to find out and keeps your research on track.

What is the SPIDER tool?

The SPIDER tool is a method used to define a research question in qualitative research. It stands for Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, and Research type.

How do you ensure the ethical considerations in qualitative research?

To ensure ethical considerations, you need to get informed consent from participants, protect their confidentiality, and make sure your study does no harm.

What are some common data collection techniques in qualitative research?

Common data collection techniques include interviews, focus groups, and observations. These methods help gather detailed and in-depth information.

How do you present your findings in a qualitative research proposal?

You present your findings by coding the data and identifying themes. Then, you explain these themes and what they mean in relation to your research question.

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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on October 12, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research proposals.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

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See an example

Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: “A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management”
• Example research proposal #2: “Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use”

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

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As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. & George, T. (2023, November 21). How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved August 12, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-proposal/

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7 Writing a proposal

• Published: May 2018
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When researchers plan to undertake qualitative research with a pilot or full RCT they write a proposal to apply for funding, seek ethical approval, or as part of their PhD studies. These proposals can be published in journals. Guidance for writing a proposal for the qualitative research undertaken with RCTs has been published, and there is existing guidance for writing proposals in related areas such as mixed methods research. In this chapter, existing guidance is introduced and built upon to offer comprehensive and detailed guidance for writing a proposal for the qualitative research undertaken with an RCT. There are challenges to writing these proposals and these are discussed and potential solutions proposed.

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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Qualitative Research Proposal

Proposal maker.

Writing a qualitative research proposal is just like writing any other research proposals. The only thing is that you are writing specifically designed to provide non-numerical data, concepts and the like. You are more likely to follow a specific format since it is a type of academic writing.

6+ Qualitative Research Proposal Examples

1. qualitative research proposal gantt chart template.

2. Sample Qualitative Research Proposal

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3. Proposal in Qualitative Research Template

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4. Individual Qualitative Research Proposal

5. Qualitative Research Proposal Format

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6. Elements of Research Proposal Qualitative Design

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7. Qualitative Research Workshop Proposal

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What is a Qualitative Research Proposal?

A qualitative research proposal gives the detailed summary of your research study. It is a type of research proposal that only involves qualitative methods of gathering a certain data such as an interview, observation, questionnaire, or case studies . Qualitative research can be applied in the field of psychology, social sciences and the like.

How to Write a Qualitative Research Proposal?

Think of a unique topic for you to provide a good research title.

Example: A Qualitative Study on Coping up with the Different Levels of Anxiety among Students

Develop Research Questions

Your research questions will be your guide in your research study. It contains the research design, research methodology and the technique you used in collecting data.

Example: What do the architecture and engineering students with anxiety do to cope up with their studies in the university?

For qualitative research, we can use the SPIDER method which stands for Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation and Research type.

Sample refers to your target population that is included in your study.

Example: The population consisted of a community of architecture and engineering students of the oldest university in the city of Manila, Philippines.

Phenomenon of Interest refers to an event or an object. What could be their experience in the university?

Design refers to the methods you used in conducting the study.

•         Interview – refers to the one on one interaction with the participant.
•       Observation – refers to observing the participants whether or not they are fully aware of the thought that you are observing them.
•     Questionnaire – refers to the process of distributing survey questionnaires to gather answers from your participants. It ends with tallying the answers to see what the participants choose the most.
•         Case study – refers to an intensive study about a specific person or group of people.

Ensure That Some Ethical Standards are Met

This refers to protecting the privacy or confidentiality of the data you have gathered and the rights of the participants.

“There were more ethical considerations in almost all aspects for drug trials and clinical studies compared with proposals for epidemiological studies. Clinical research studies usually directly involve human subjects, either with preventive, therapeutic, or non-therapeutic procedures. In general, the study procedures in such study designs put human subjects at higher risks, thus there are more ethical concerns. The primary ethical considerations of clinical studies are competent medical treatment and care, alongside an acceptable risk–benefit balance. However, many laboratory research studies use stored specimens, with less invasive procedures, and epidemiology studies usually employ data collection through medical records, CRFs or questionnaires. Ethical issues for the latter, therefore, mainly concern confidentiality and privacy of the study participants. However, it was found that studies that collect new specimens received more comments on ethical issues. There remains debate among RECs about solutions for issues around sample export, storage, and reuse. However, it is recommended that in order to ensure adequate protection of human research subjects participating in scientific research, RECs bear the responsibility of guaranteeing that participants are provided with sufficient detail to be able to provide informed consent as well as to understand the reality of genetic research as it is practiced.”

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Consider writing a plan to be used for the whole duration of your research. this includes the timeline and budget..

Timeline – refers to the target length of time to complete your research.

Budget – refers to the estimation of how much your research would cost. All items that you think might be included in the budgeting must be included.

Don’t Forget to Include Your Reference

This contains the list of the sources that you should cite on the last page of your research. It usually follows the APA format.

How long should a qualitative research proposal be?

Every research proposal should be at least 4 to 7 pages long or depending on the requirement of your professor.

Do we still have to write for the definition of terms in the research proposal?

Yes. You have the option to do so to introduce and define words that are difficult for the readers to understand.

What can be considered as a good topic in writing qualitative research?

Your topic will either be given by your professor or you may look into unique topics into the internet.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Generate a proposal for a new school recycling program

Compose a proposal for a school field trip to a science museum.

All Formats

8+ Qualitative Research Proposal Templates – PDF | Word | Excel

Qualitative research is a way of exploring ideas for developing new products, it is also used to evaluate ideas without the use of statistical and numerical measurements and analyzes in the form of Research Plan Templates. Writing a qualitative research proposal samples follows the same guidelines as every Research Proposal .

Proposal Template Bundle

• Google Docs

Qualitative Research Proposal Gantt Chart Template

Free Sample Qualitative Dissertation Proposal

Free Intellectual Disability Research Proposal Template

How to write Qualitative Research Proposals and Research studies in qualitative

• Choose a subject that will keep your interest from start to finish of the research.
• Keep detailed notes of the literature review to help you write your proposal and make sure you create a sturdy research outline .
• Make sure your terminology is correct in order to show that you have good knowledge of the subject.
• State in your proposal how you will ensure that your research will be of high quality.
• Use a formal writing style for a professional look.

Process of the qualitative proposal

• Choosing a research problem. The problem has to be interesting for the researcher since they are going to spend a lot of time working on it.
• Reviewing the existing literature regarding the research problem.
• Selection of a sample that will be used for the research.
• Selection of the method of data collection.
• Selection of data analysis medium.
• Creation of the outline research.
• Writing and review of the proposal.

Free Individual Qualitative Research Proposal

Free Qualitative Research Proposal Simple Template

Free Education Qualitative Research Proposal

Free Qualitative Research Developing Proposal

Free General Client Qualitative Research Proposal

Structure of the qualitative proposal and research studies in qualitative

• Cover page. The information regarding the cover page are often provided by the institutes, however, make sure to include the title, the name and profession of the researcher, some space for signatures for the researcher(s) and the institute committee, and lastly contact information for the author.
• It is a brief synopsis of the proposal layout that is supposed to prepare the reader for what the proposal contains and what the subject of the research is. Its length should be between 250 – 300 words long and at its end it is advised to provide a number of key words.
• It is the section that informs the reader about what the research problem and the question the researcher chose to work on. In the introduction, the researcher has to state the significance of the research and to explain why and how it can add to the existing literature similar to the Action  Research Proposal .
• Literature Review. This section must be presented the previous studies that have been conducted and addresses specific gaps the researcher has found in them and how they can add more to that.
• Research method. It’s the section that presents the methodology the researcher is going to follow in order to collect the data for the research as well as how they will analyze them.
• Timeline in order to state the time frame of the research.
• Budget in order to state the estimated costs to conduct the research.
• References of all the studies and previous research that are mentioned in the Simple Proposal template.

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Comprehensive Guide to Research Proposals and Classroom-Based Action Research for DepEd Personnel

Research plays a crucial role in advancing educational practices and improving student outcomes. For educators and staff within the Department of Education (DepEd) of the Philippines, engaging in research activities can yield valuable insights that enhance teaching methods, promote effective learning, and contribute to overall school improvement. This comprehensive guide aims to provide DepEd personnel with detailed instructions on crafting research proposals, implementing classroom-based action research, and addressing feedback from research committees, all within the context of DepEd’s specific policies and guidelines.

Table of Contents

Understanding DepEd’s Research Framework

Before diving into the research process, it’s essential to understand the key components of DepEd’s research framework:

Basic Education Research Fund (BERF)

The Basic Education Research Fund (BERF), established by DepEd Order No. 43, s. 2015 and further refined in DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017, provides financial support for research initiatives within DepEd. This fund is crucial for enabling DepEd personnel to conduct meaningful research that contributes to evidence-based decision-making in education.

Research Committees

DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017 outlines the structure and roles of research committees at various levels:

• National Research Committee (NRC)
• Regional Research Committee (RRC)
• Schools Division Research Committee (SDRC)

These committees are responsible for evaluating and approving research proposals, ensuring that research aligns with DepEd’s priorities and meets quality standards.

Basic Education Research Agenda

DepEd Order No. 39, s. 2016 establishes the Basic Education Research Agenda, which identifies priority research areas. When developing research proposals, DepEd personnel should align their topics with the themes outlined in this agenda, which include:

• Teaching and Learning
• Child Protection
• Human Resource Development

E-Saliksik: The DepEd Research Portal

Introduced by DepEd Order No. 14, s. 2022, E-Saliksik serves as a central repository for completed research. This portal is an essential resource for archiving and accessing research conducted within DepEd, promoting knowledge sharing and evidence-based practices.

Writing an Effective Research Proposal

A well-structured research proposal is crucial for securing approval and funding for your study. When developing your proposal, consider the following key components:

1. Introduction and Rationale

• Clearly state the research problem or question.
• Explain the study’s significance, emphasizing its potential impact on educational practices and policies.
• Provide background information and context, situating your research within the current educational landscape and DepEd’s priorities.

2. Literature Review

• Conduct a thorough review of existing research on your topic, summarizing key findings and theories.
• Identify specific gaps in current knowledge that your study aims to address.
• Demonstrate how your proposed research aligns with the Basic Education Research Agenda.

3. Research Questions

• Formulate specific, focused research questions that directly align with your study’s objectives and DepEd’s research priorities.
• Ensure that your questions are clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your proposed research.

4. Methodology

• Provide a detailed description of your research design, clearly stating whether it is qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods.
• Explain your data collection methods and instruments in depth, including any plans for pilot testing or validation.
• Outline your sampling strategy, specifying the criteria for participant selection and the rationale behind your chosen sample size.
• Address ethical considerations comprehensively, particularly when working with students or vulnerable populations.
• If applicable, describe plans for virtual or remote data collection, as allowed by DepEd Order No. 26, s. 2021.

5. Data Analysis Plan

• Outline your approach to data analysis in detail, specifying the statistical tests or qualitative analysis techniques you intend to employ.
• Explain how you will ensure the validity and reliability of your findings.
• Describe any software or tools you plan to use in your analysis process.

6. Timeline and Budget

• Present a realistic and detailed schedule for completing each phase of the research.
• Include a comprehensive budget that outlines all anticipated expenses, ensuring alignment with BERF guidelines.

7. Expected Outcomes and Significance

• Discuss the potential implications of your findings for educational policy and practice within the DepEd context.
• Explain how your research results may contribute to addressing specific challenges in the Philippine education system.
• Outline plans for disseminating your findings, including through Learning Action Cells (LACs) as described in DepEd Order No. 35, s. 2016.

8. Ethical Considerations

• Provide a detailed explanation of how you will address ethical concerns, particularly when working with students or Indigenous Peoples.
• Demonstrate compliance with DepEd’s ethical guidelines as outlined in DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017.

Eligibility for Research Grants

As per DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017, to be eligible for research grants under BERF, DepEd personnel must meet the following criteria:

• Be a regular/permanent teaching or non-teaching personnel of DepEd
• Have no pending administrative case
• Have not yet availed of the grant for the given year
• For group proposals, have a maximum of three research team members

Conducting Classroom-Based Action Research

Action research offers a powerful method for teachers to systematically investigate and improve their own classroom practices. The following steps provide a guide to conducting effective action research within the DepEd context:

1. Identify a Problem or Area for Improvement

• Engage in critical reflection on challenges you face in your teaching or observe in student learning.
• Formulate a specific, actionable research question that addresses the identified issue and aligns with DepEd’s research priorities.

2. Plan Your Intervention

• Design a targeted instructional strategy or intervention to address the problem.
• Develop comprehensive data collection tools, ensuring they comply with DepEd’s ethical guidelines.

3. Implement and Collect Data

• Carry out your planned intervention in the classroom, maintaining detailed records of the process.
• Gather data through multiple methods, which may include virtual or remote data collection as permitted by DepEd Order No. 26, s. 2021.

4. Analyze and Reflect

• Examine your collected data systematically to identify patterns, trends, or significant changes.
• Use both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques as appropriate for your data.
• Reflect deeply on the effectiveness of your intervention, considering both expected and unexpected outcomes.

5. Revise and Repeat

• Based on your findings, make informed adjustments to your teaching approach or intervention.
• Continue the action research cycle, implementing revised strategies and collecting new data to assess their effectiveness.

6. Share Results

• Document your entire action research process, including your initial problem, intervention, data collection methods, findings, and reflections.
• Prepare a detailed action research report or presentation to share with colleagues.
• Consider presenting your findings at school-based professional development sessions, education conferences, or through Learning Action Cells (LACs).

Responding to Research Committee Suggestions

Receiving and addressing feedback from research committees is a crucial part of the proposal review process. The following steps will help you effectively respond to committee suggestions:

1. Carefully Review All Feedback

• Read through all comments multiple times to ensure a thorough understanding of the concerns raised.
• Take notes on each point of feedback, categorizing them by their significance and the sections of your proposal they address.

2. Organize Suggestions

• Group similar comments together to identify overarching themes in the feedback.
• Prioritize major concerns that require significant changes to your research design or methodology.
• Create a systematic checklist of all points that need to be addressed.

3. Develop an Action Plan

• Create a point-by-point response to each suggestion, detailing how you plan to address the concern.
• For each major revision, outline the specific changes you will make to your proposal.
• Consider seeking input from colleagues or mentors on how best to address complex or challenging feedback.

4. Make Revisions

• Update your proposal based on the feedback received, ensuring that changes are consistent throughout the document.
• Pay particular attention to maintaining the logical flow and coherence of your proposal as you make revisions.
• Ensure that your revised proposal still aligns with DepEd’s research priorities and ethical guidelines.

5. Document Your Response

• Prepare a detailed response document explaining how you addressed each comment from the research committee.
• Include specific page numbers and sections where revisions can be found in the updated proposal.
• Provide clear rationales for any suggestions you chose not to implement, explaining your reasoning respectfully and professionally.

6. Seek Clarification if Needed

• If any feedback is unclear or seems contradictory, don’t hesitate to ask for clarification from the committee.
• Frame your questions professionally, demonstrating your commitment to improving your proposal.

7. Maintain a Positive Attitude

• Approach the revision process as an opportunity to strengthen your research design and methodology.
• Remain open to constructive criticism, recognizing that the committee’s goal is to help you produce the best possible research.
• Use the feedback as a learning experience to improve your research skills and proposal writing abilities.

Quality Control and Dissemination

As outlined in DepEd Order No. 14, s. 2022, completed research must undergo a quality control process before being accepted for archival in the E-Saliksik portal. This process ensures that all research meets DepEd’s standards for rigor and relevance.

Once your research is completed and has passed the quality control process:

• Submit your research for archival in the E-Saliksik portal.
• Prepare a research bulletin or summary for wider dissemination within DepEd.
• Share your findings through Learning Action Cells (LACs) and other professional development activities.
• Consider presenting your research at DepEd-sponsored conferences or submitting it for publication in educational journals.

Engaging in research as a DepEd educator or staff member offers a valuable opportunity to contribute to the improvement of educational practices and student outcomes in the Philippines. By following these comprehensive guidelines and adhering to DepEd’s specific policies and procedures, you can increase the likelihood of your research being approved, funded, and making a meaningful impact in your school and beyond.

Remember that research is an ongoing process of learning and discovery. Each study you undertake will help you refine your skills, deepen your understanding of educational issues, and contribute to the growing body of knowledge in education. By embracing this process and committing to rigorous, ethical research practices, you can play a significant role in advancing the quality of education in the Philippines.

This article, “ Comprehensive Guide to Research Proposals and Classroom-Based Action Research for DepEd Personnel ,” was authored by Mark Anthony Llego and published on August 10, 2024.

Mark Anthony Llego

Mark Anthony Llego, a visionary from the Philippines, founded TeacherPH in October 2014 with a mission to transform the educational landscape. His platform has empowered thousands of Filipino teachers, providing them with crucial resources and a space for meaningful idea exchange, ultimately enhancing their instructional and supervisory capabilities. TeacherPH's influence extends far beyond its origins. Mark's insightful articles on education have garnered international attention, featuring on respected U.S. educational websites. Moreover, his work has become a valuable reference for researchers, contributing to the academic discourse on education.

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Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research

• First Online: 27 October 2022

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• Md. Ismail Hossain 4 ,
• Nafiul Mehedi 4 &
• Iftakhar Ahmad 4  

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The chapter discusses designing a research proposal in qualitative research. The main objective is to outline the major components of a qualitative research proposal with example(s) so that the students and novice scholars easily get an understanding of a qualitative proposal. The chapter highlights the major components of a qualitative research proposal and discusses the steps involved in designing a proposal. In each step, an example is given with some essential tips. Following these steps and tips, a novice researcher can easily prepare a qualitative research proposal. Readers, especially undergraduate and master’s students, might use this as a guideline while preparing a thesis proposal. After reading this chapter, they can easily prepare a qualitative proposal.

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Hossain, M.I., Mehedi, N., Ahmad, I. (2022). Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_18

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• Open access
• Published: 14 August 2024

Immediate and evolving emotions among directly exposed survivors 7 years after the Oklahoma City bombing

• E. Whitney Pollio 1 ,
• Helena Zhang 2 ,
• Alex Gajewski 3 ,
• Samir Abu-Hamad 3 ,
• Katy McDonald 3 , 4 ,
• David E. Pollio 5 &
• Carol S. North 3 , 4  

npj Mental Health Research volume  3 , Article number:  38 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Health services
• Human behaviour
• Occupational health
• Public health

The Oklahoma City bombing in 1995 was one of the most devastating incidents of terrorism in America at that time. Existing research has not examined changes in emotional responses outside of psychopathology to disaster over time. The sample for this study consisted of adult participants randomly selected from a state registry of survivors who were directly exposed to the 1995 bombing in Oklahoma City. The Disaster Supplement to the Diagnostic Interview Schedule was used to collect participants’ demographic information and qualitative details of their disaster experience, perceptions, and feelings. A total of 315 items resulted from the coding of responses pertaining to emotions (125 immediately after the disaster event, 140 in the following week, and 50 at approximately seven years postdisaster). The most common emotions in the immediate postdisaster period were shock, fear, and anxiety. In the following week, the most common were sorrow and anger. At seven years, sorrow was the most frequently expressed of all emotions. Understanding the progression of these feelings across time enhances the ability to anticipate responses at different postdisaster timeframes and to intervene in a timely manner.

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Introduction.

The Oklahoma City (OKC) bombing in 1995 was the most severe incident of terrorism on American soil at the time. A domestic terrorist detonated a homemade fertilizer bomb inside a rental truck directly in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in OKC. The bomb blast killed 167 individuals, including 19 children, and injured 684. Nearly one-half (46%) of individuals who were in the Murrah building at the time of the bombing were killed, and most (93%) were injured. More than 800 building structures in the area were damaged or destroyed.

Few studies have provided both qualitative and quantitative information systematically obtained from survivors of terrorist events. Most disaster studies 1 , 2 , 3 have described postdisaster psychological symptoms along with outcomes and treatment needs in the context of specific psychopathology, especially posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, some research 4 , 5 , 6 has shown that while emotional responses and strong negative reactions are practically ubiquitous in experiences of such an extreme nature, the majority of disaster survivors neither qualify for a diagnosis of PTSD nor develop other psychopathology. Prior research has not focused on emotional responses outside of psychopathology over time after disaster.

Intense emotions that emerge in the aftermath of a disaster are universally recognized as natural human responses 7 . Exploration of these emotions outside of psychopathological constructs is needed. The literature on postdisaster emotional responses mentions intense feelings of fear, grief, anxiety, guilt, and sorrow 8 , 9 . Numbness, characterized as a lack of emotions, was reported by many survivors of the Central Italy earthquakes 10 . According to 1 survey study 11 , anger was the most salient emotion among both exposed and unexposed U.S. civilians in the early aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. Another study 12 found that severe distress reported by 9/11 survivors was associated with feelings of anger.

Prior studies 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 have indicated that feelings such as shock, disbelief, fear, and anxiety tend to decline quickly, whereas sorrow, grief, and guilt generally linger. Some studies 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 have suggested that feelings prompted by negative experiences tend to fade more quickly over time than those associated with positive experiences. Other research 22 has proposed that negative emotions tend to persist longer than positive emotions and have greater impact on individuals. The literature generally agrees that emotions within disaster survivor populations typically do not transform from one type to another, although their presence and intensity may change within populations over time.

Most of the research on subjective emotional responses to disaster has been conducted in early postdisaster time frames and used quantitative methodology to collect data. Qualitative research has the potential to introduce spontaneous subjective material that may not be captured in quantitative studies. Qualitative findings on emotions from baseline interviews of OKC bombing survivors 6 months after the bombing have already been published 23 , but further examination of the longer-term course of postdisaster emotions is still needed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the natural evolution of emotions from the first week to 7 years post disaster using reflections of emotions among a sample of survivors directly exposed to trauma in the OKC bombing. This study addresses the importance of the powerful postdisaster emotions that are normative and ubiquitous among directly exposed survivors of terrorism beyond the limitations of examining only PTSD and other psychopathologies. It is important to study emotional responses of trauma survivors to inform mental health intervention needs in addition to needs for formal psychiatric care 5 , 24 . Understanding the progression of disaster-related feelings across time enhances the ability to anticipate responses at different postdisaster timeframes and to intervene in a timely manner.

A total of 315 items resulted from the coding of responses pertaining to emotions (125 immediately after the disaster event, 140 in the following week, and 50 currently at ~7 years postdisaster). Figure 1a–d represents bar graphs illustrating the proportions of each of the 9 emotions across the 3 time periods after the bomb blast. The relatively most common emotions in the immediate postdisaster period were shock, fear, and anxiety. In the following week, the most common were sorrow and anger. At 7 years, sorrow was the most frequently expressed of all emotions.

a – d Percent of respondents that expressed specific feelings immediately, the first week, and at 7 years post bomb blast.

Fear and anxiety

As demonstrated in Fig. 1a , fear was a relatively common response in the immediate postdisaster timeframe, decreasing in proportions substantially in the following week and not reported at all at 7 years. Anxiety was relatively common only in the early postdisaster periods.

Immediately after the disaster, fear was described with either single-word expressions (“scared,” “afraid,” or “frightened”) or short descriptive phrases. In several instances, fear was associated with thoughts of uncertainty such as “I didn’t know what was happening” and “I didn’t know what else might happen.” One survivor discussed fear in relation to mortality: “Scared, I thought I might die.” Extreme anxiety was expressed as “very anxious” or “panicked.” Fear and anxiety were both attributed to concerns for their own safety and the safety of other victims.

In the following week, fear was described intensely: “extreme fear” and “never been so scared in my life.” Some fear was described in association with specific reminders of the bombing (body parts, loud noises) or associations with the workplace setting (entering buildings, returning to work). At this point, most of the anxiety was attributed to concern about coworkers and friends. Intense expressions of anxiety continued with terms such as “panic attacks,” “easily startled,” and “jumping at every sound.”

At 7 years, fear was no longer mentioned. The only report of anxiety was related to reminders of the bombing and avoidance of them; i.e., anxiety was hardly an issue years later.

Numbness, disbelief, and shock

Figure 1b shows the relative prevalence of numbness, disbelief, and shock over time. Shock was represented by more than a quarter of responses in the immediate period. This proportion declined to less than one-tenth in the following week and disappeared thereafter. Numbness also diminished over time. Disbelief was relatively uncommon in the early postdisaster period and was no longer present at 7 years.

Most emotions expressed in the immediate period were phrased as single-word statements or short clauses, such as “disbelief” or “numb.” Several survivors associated their shock with confusion: “shock, confusion” or “confusion and bewilderment.” A few attributed their feelings of shock to a sense of disorientation: “I lost track of time” and “I couldn’t remember anything until the evening.” A few others connected their numbness to an inability to integrate information: “Numb. I couldn’t make any sense of what was happening. Things weren’t sinking in” and “I was numb – in denial. I didn’t think that I was in danger.” Similarly, they attached their disbelief to an inability to comprehend that the event happened, questioning whether the bomb blast was “real or a dream.”

In the first week after the bombing, many survivors were “still in shock.” Disbelief was typically conveyed by single-word descriptions. Numbness was also generally expressed as a single word (“numb” or “unemotional”). A few individuals depicted their numbness as detachment from personal emotions: “I didn’t feel as much as I would have thought I would feel or that others were feeling.” Numbness was also characterized as a loss of self-awareness: “I felt low, numb, like a zombie,” and “Like living in a haze – I went through motions, not really living or conscious of what I was doing.”

Seven years after the disaster, there were no reports of shock or disbelief and very few responses representing numbness. One survivor explained, “I have always felt kind of numb about it” and in the same statement, acknowledged little anger toward the bomber. Another survivor commented, “I don’t feel as much as others,” which enabled that individual to return to work.

A noteworthy finding was that many of the descriptions of these 3 emotions in the immediate period consisted of or were embedded with words or statements containing cognition such as “trying to figure out what happened,” “I didn’t know what else might happen,” and “I wanted a tetanus shot.” This initial intertwining of cognition and feeling dwindled over time as responses in the subsequent time periods represented more unqualified expressions of emotion.

Sorrow and guilt

Figure 1c reflects the progression of the proportions of sorrow and guilt responses over time. The percentage of sorrow responses was very low immediately after the disaster but increased to a maximum at 7 years when it represented majority of all emotional responses. Guilt was not present immediately and little represented thereafter.

Not only did the percentage of these emotions vary over time, but the qualitative content evolved as well. Sorrow immediately after the disaster was described as “extreme sadness” associated with an obsession with television coverage of the bombing. One survivor described “crying for people.” Sorrow was also expressed as grief, generally related to the loss of countless innocent lives in the bombing.

In the following week, strong feelings of sorrow were still noted: “very sad” and “crying a lot.” A majority of the expressed emotions represented sadness that was still related to the loss of loved ones and other victims. One survivor recalled “going to funerals every day” and struggling with “real personal losses.” There were several mentions of sadness described as “depression,” a term not used in the immediate postdisaster period. Only one individual expressed guilt over having survived: “I was so elated I was alive, I felt guilty.”

At 7 years, sorrow was highly pervasive. It was generally discussed in relation to the loss of lives in the bombing and the fact that a “U.S. citizen could do such a thing to fellow men.” A few noteworthy survivors indicated that their sorrow had subsided or was resolving: “I tried to get out of the anger and sadness….It does not bother me now” and “Sad, but after that I met a lot of nice people and sometimes feel good.” A handful of comments invoked the 9/11 attacks as precipitating a resurgence of sadness: “I was okay till the September 11 attacks and then I felt it all over again” and “9/11 brought up the sadness about being unable to help people more.” The few instances of expressed guilt were attached to remorse for having survived the disaster when others perished or for failing to help more victims in the bombing. Some of this guilt had decreased in intensity: “I don’t feel as guilty now as then.”

Gratitude and anger

Figure 1d shows the progression of proportions of gratitude and anger responses over time. Gratitude responses were relatively uncommon. Anger responses remained relatively prevalent across time, peaking in the first postdisaster week and still represented by approximately one-fifth of all emotional responses at 7 years.

Immediately after the disaster, intense anger was described as “overwhelming rage,” and “angry, just angry.” Survivors attributed their anger to physical injuries and property damages caused by the bomb blast: “My whole life was totally screwed up, my work, my car.” One survivor expressed outrage over the detonation of the bomb close to a daycare center in the Murrah Building. No gratitude was expressed.

In the following week, intense anger was expressed as “pissed,” “so angry,” and “anger, hate” accompanied by “lots of crying” and “yelling.” The bomber was the target of much of this anger. Other anger was directed to company layoffs and being forced to return to work. The rare instances of expressed gratitude were attributed to having survived the bombing: “I felt fortunate to be alive.”

At 7 years, anger was still expressed, but it lacked the earlier intensity. For example, anger was described as “still some anger” and just “mad” at the perpetrator. Some of the anger had resolved: “I’m not angry anymore.” Survivors expressed “hatred for people who do these kinds of things” and despair “that terrorism can hurt so many people.” Gratitude responses were more prominent, although still directed toward having survived.

This 7-year follow-up study examined the feelings of survivors directly exposed to the OKC bombing and the evolution of these feelings as the survivors processed their disaster-related experiences over time. Survivors recalled their emotional responses to the bombing in the earlier periods (immediately and 1 week) and at 7 years (“now” or currently at the time of the interview) and identified 9 core feelings: fear, anxiety, shock, numbness, disbelief, sorrow, guilt, anger, and gratitude. The prevalence of these emotions changed across the 3 time periods.

Fear and shock were initially highly represented among emotions, but by 1 week, proportions of both plummeted. Other immediate responses such as numbness, anxiety, and disbelief changed relatively little by 1 week, which might suggest that these emotions took more time to process compared to fear and shock. Most fear/anxiety and numbness/disbelief/shock had resolved by 7 years, which is consistent with findings of other studies 13 , 14 , 17 . Sorrow and anger, unlike the other feelings, were rarely reported immediately after the bomb blast. Sorrow and anger grew in proportions over time and lingered into the current time frame, constituting the majority of emotional responses currently at 7 years. These patterns of immediate postdisaster emotional reactions have been observed in prior studies 8 , 9 , 10 , 15 . Sorrow eclipsed the expression of all other emotions at the 7-year time point. Prior longitudinal studies 15 , 16 have also noted the persistence of sorrow several years after a disaster. Previous studies 11 , 12 , 25 have similarly revealed prominent anger among individuals exposed to large-scale violent events. In contrast, research on emotional responses to the 2015 Paris terrorist attacks found that anger was less frequently expressed than anxiety and sorrow; these data, however, were collected from social media comments posted by mostly disaster-unexposed individuals 26 .

Qualitative descriptions of current feelings at 7 years differed from those at 6 months 23 as exemplified by relevant quotations, suggesting that feelings evolved over time qualitatively as well as quantitatively. In describing their emotional responses to the disaster at 7-year follow-up, survivors struggled to elaborate upon their feelings during the initial chaos and commotion: emotions such as shock and fear were primarily expressed as immediate reactions without additional description. Despite increasing numbers of anger responses from the immediate postdisaster period to later timeframes, the qualitative intensity of anger responses diminished over time. Low amounts of sorrow/sadness were expressed in the immediate postdisaster period, which could well be a reflection of little loss of “close associates” or “loved ones” in this sample’s experience as defined by DSM criteria for PTSD trauma exposure criterion A. Qualitative descriptions of sorrow evolved from an early focus on personal losses as the greatly increased sorrow responses over time apparently overwhelmed more personal early responses with an increasing focus on the general collective loss of innocent lives in a random and senseless act of violence. One other qualitative study 15 that examined the emotions of survivors of the 2011 tornado outbreaks in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and Joplin, Missouri, found that feelings of sadness remained intense several years after the disaster, but it did not explore their feelings beyond 4 years.

The decrease in relative numbers of negative emotions of fear/anxiety and numbness/disbelief/shock over time is consistent with findings from literature reviewed in this article’s introduction. Findings were mixed regarding negative emotions of sorrow and anger in this study, with a reduction of the intensity of these emotions but a relative increase in number of responses. This study also found a relative increase in positive emotions of gratitude over time, not inconsistent with prior research.

Comparison of findings of the current 7-year follow-up study to those of the 6-month baseline study of this sample 23 reveals consistency in directional changes in terms of numbers of emotional responses reported over time, with both studies finding general decreases in not only fear and anxiety but also numbness, disbelief, and shock responses, and general relative increases not only in sorrow and guilt but also in gratitude and anger responses. However, early postdisaster numbness and disbelief were recalled by many at 6 months in the baseline study but mostly not mentioned at 7 years, suggesting fading of memory for these early postdisaster emotions over the years. Early postdisaster anxiety in the immediate and 1-week periods was more prominent in the 7-year follow-up interviews than in the 6-month baseline interviews. This suggests that as time passed, survivors may have overestimated their immediate anxiety, with their more remote memories possibly contaminated by continued anxiety at 7 years. Survivors’ qualitative descriptions of their feelings in the first week generally appeared consistent in types of emotions expressed between 6-month (baseline) and 7-year (follow-up) interviews, perhaps in part reflecting repetitive rehearsal of their disaster experience.

This study had several methodological strengths. One important feature was the random selection of individuals who were highly exposed to the bomb blast with a high participation rate, forming a sample population that is highly representative of bombing survivors. In addition, the 7-year interval between data collection points provided unique perspective insight into changes over time in perceptions of disaster-related emotional experiences. Other major strengths included the systematic data collection including open-ended responses to specific questions regarding their feelings about the disaster, allowing survivors to articulate their emotional responses broadly in their own words.

Limitations of this study included the loss of slightly more than one-third of the baseline sample, resulting in a lower proportion of unmarried individuals in the follow-up sample, which may have created biases limiting the generalizability of the findings. A major limitation of this study was the collection of the data for this study 7 years after the bombing, and thus the responses pertaining to early postdisaster periods are retrospective over years, introducing potential for inaccuracies of memory over time, though this weakness is addressed in comparisons with the earlier study’s findings. Additionally, the qualitative data collected were reported by the survivors to the interviewers who handwrote the responses rather than using audio recordings and transcription of actual responses. Interviewer paraphrases of survivors’ responses may have resulted in loss of information, inaccurate recording, and incorrect interviewer interpretation of responses. Finally, the data for the current study were collected more than 2 decades ago; however, it is established that the age of a database does not necessarily detract from its value 27 , 28 . This valuable database yields new knowledge with substantial applicability regarding emotions of survivors of terrorism across the years.

The results from this analysis revealed potential directions for future research. Because this study did not compare emotional responses with demographic characteristics such as age, race, socioeconomic status, and educational attainment or other variables such as social support and preexisting and postdisaster psychopathology, it could be useful for future studies to investigate these associations. Further analysis specifically comparing data for the early postdisaster emotional responses reported within individuals at 6-month baseline interviews and 7-year follow-up interviews was beyond the scope of this study, warranting separate treatment in future research dedicated to this analysis. Similarly, additional analysis specifically comparing different emotions reported together among individuals warrants future study to produce knowledge about co-occurrence of disaster-related emotions. Further study is also needed to examine the course of postdisaster emotions over periods longer than 7 years to determine subsequent effects on the lives of survivors.

Both general reductions in negative emotions (numbers of fear/anxiety and numbness/disbelief/shock and intensity of sorrow and anger) and the simultaneous increase in the positive emotion of gratitude among survivors directly exposed to large-scale terrorist events suggest progression toward emotional resiliency. Even though strong emotions are likely to be encountered among survivors of disasters as demonstrated by the findings of this study, only a minority of survivors will present with diagnosable psychopathology 6 , 29 and powerful emotions are likely to be encountered long before most postdisaster psychopathology can be diagnosed (more than 1 month for PTSD and 2 weeks for major depressive disorder). This study also has potential implications for guiding interventions over evolving postdisaster timeframes. For example, early postdisaster interventions can be advised to be prepared to focus on fear/anxiety and numbing/disbelief shock. Later interventions will need to be prepared for an onslaught of anger and sorrow. Gratitude can be expected to occur naturally only as the years go by, suggesting that while it might be advantageous to cultivate gratitude early after disaster, it might be inappropriate to try to do so before its time of readiness. This study’s findings demonstrated that clinicians responding to disaster survivors need to be prepared to address prevalent and intense negative emotions, especially early after disaster, and to be able to differentiate these from psychopathology in selecting the most effective interventions. Formal evaluation and treatment are needed for psychopathology and reassurance and social support for the majority presenting with nonpathological emotional responses.

More details of the research methods for this study and demographic characteristics of the baseline sample are provided in previous articles 5 , 6 . The sample for this study consisted of adult participants randomly selected from a state registry of survivors who were directly exposed to the 1995 bombing in OKC. All participants were personally contacted and interviewed by members of the research team in research offices or at private locations preferable to participants, who were offered modest monetary remuneration for their effort. The participation rate in the baseline study 5 conducted at 6 months post disaster was 71%. At the time of the bombing, all members of the sample were located in buildings that were severely damaged and where deaths occurred or in nearby outdoor locations, and thus all were directly exposed to the bombing; 87% were injured in the bombing, many severely. Additionally, 45% knew someone killed in the bombing, but only 1% lost a family member. Of the 182 participants at baseline, 113 (62%) were re-interviewed in a follow-up study conducted ~7 years after the bombing. The 7-year follow-up sample had nearly equal proportions of men (49%) and women (51%), was 42 median years of age, and was predominantly Caucasian (93%). More than two-thirds (70%) were married, and many (29%) were college-educated. A significantly higher percentage of non-respondents were divorced/separated (34% versus 15%; χ 2  = 8.48, p  = 0.004) compared to the reinterviewed group at 7 years. This study was approved by the Washington University Institutional Review Board (IRB) #00-0922 with initial approval on date 11/1/00 and University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center IRB #082006-033 (exempt) with initial approval date on 8/31/2006, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants at time of enrollment.

The Disaster Supplement to the Diagnostic Interview Schedule 30 was used to collect participants’ demographic information and qualitative details of their disaster experience, perceptions, and feelings. Direct exposure to the disaster was defined according to DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association) criteria for PTSD. The Disaster Supplement included 3 open-ended questions inquiring about the survivors’ emotional responses to the bombing at 3 postdisaster periods: “directly following” (i.e., immediately), “in the following week,” and “now.” These questions provided the qualitative material for this analysis. The interviewers recorded participants’ answers verbatim during the interviews. The interviewers’ handwritten responses were later typed into electronic text documents for qualitative analysis. This procedure was successfully used in prior disaster research articles 12 , 31 , 32 , 33 published by this research team. Because the interviews were not audio recorded, the illustrative quotes do not necessarily represent word-for-word transcriptions.

The data for this 7-year follow-up study were provided by interviews conducted at the 7-year data collection. Thus, responses to the questions were examined separately across the 3 time periods as reported at 7 years. This analysis does not include qualitative baseline data for direct comparison. Participants’ responses to the 7-year interview questions “directly following” and “in the following week” represent their current memories and perceptions of their postdisaster experience in the early postdisaster time frames 7 years ago. The “now” period refers to feelings present at the time of the interview at 7 years after the bombing.

Data analysis

The content in response to these questions was reviewed by a researcher on the team for identification of separate feelings. Nine feelings emerged: fear, anxiety, disbelief, numbness, shock, sorrow, guilt, anger, and gratitude. Descriptions for each feeling were developed to allow systematic coding of content. Multiple types of feelings were allowed in coding responses at each time frame. Two researchers independently rated a series of responses to identify feelings represented in participants’ responses, achieving excellent interrater reliability (kappa ≥ 0.80) for each feeling with a Cohen’s kappa score range of 0.80–1.00 34 . Interrater differences were resolved during this process through discussion to achieve consensus and formulation of inclusion and exclusion criteria for each feeling as agreed upon by both researchers. After interrater reliability was achieved, the electronic interview text documents were imported into ATLAS.ti for coding of feelings expressed in the responses.

Feelings were grouped within figures created from the data for purpose of displaying the proportions of responses for each emotion type in the 3 timeframes. Fear and anxiety were included in the same figure as they parallel the hyperarousal symptom cluster of PTSD. Sorrow and guilt were paired in a figure as they are reminiscent of depressive symptoms. Numbness, disbelief, and shock were grouped together in a figure as they resemble the numbing symptoms of PTSD. The remaining 2 emotions, anger and gratitude, were included in a final figure. Qualitative content for each feeling was organized conceptually by the research team and presented for each feeling by specific time period, with concepts described and highlighted with illustrative quotes.

Data availability

The data for this manuscript are available to researchers upon specific request.

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health Grants MH40025 and MH68853 to North.

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Contributions

Whitney Pollio: Performed coding, assisted with qualitative methods, contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Helena Zhang: Transcribed the data, performed coding, contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Alex Gajewski: Performed coding, contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Samir Abu-Hamad: Performed coding, contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Katy McDonald: Oversaw the coding, contributed to the writing of the manuscript. David E. Pollio: Methodologist contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Carol S. North: PI and designer of the project, collection of data, assisted with qualitative methods, contributed to the writing of the manuscript.

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Pollio, E.W., Zhang, H., Gajewski, A. et al. Immediate and evolving emotions among directly exposed survivors 7 years after the Oklahoma City bombing. npj Mental Health Res 3 , 38 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44184-024-00081-y

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