abnormal psychology research

For example, it is common in Southern Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK.  Voice pitch and volume, touching, the direction of gaze, and acceptable subjects for discussion have all been found to vary between cultures.

For example, wearing a chicken suit in the street for a charity event would seem normal, but wearing a chicken suit for everyday activities, such as shopping or going to church, would be socially abnormal.

For example, one hundred years ago, a pregnancy outside of marriage was considered a sign of mental illness, and some women were institutionalized, whereas now this is not the case

For example, a man wearing a dress and high heels may be considered socially abnormal as society would not expect it, whereas this is expected of women

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Abnormal Psychology

There are several key questions for students to answer as they work toward mastering the content of abnormal psychology. How do psychologists define and diagnose something as being abnormal? Who are key historical figures, and how have views of mental health and illness changed over the years? How do psychologists use sci­ence to better assess and understand mental disorders? What are the primary theoretical perspectives and treat­ment options? We explore these questions in the follow­ing sections.

What is Abnormal Psychology? Definitions of Abnormal

Defining what is abnormal depends on how one first defines what is normal. This may sound simple and obvious, but it is not always so easy to remember that these are dynamic and relative terms. What people consider normal behavior depends on the time, place, and those involved. For exam­ple, most people believe that physical aggression against another person is generally unacceptable, but certain forms of aggression under certain circumstances (e.g., a great hit in a football game) may in fact be encouraged and celebrated. Psychologists therefore face a unique challenge when trying to define abnormality, because normality is a complex mov­ing target directly influenced by evolving social values.

Synonyms for the word abnormal include the fol­lowing: deviant, unusual, distressing, dysfunctional, and maladaptive (among others). These synonyms can help describe key features or dimensions that psychologists and other professionals may use to help identify abnormality. Each dimension represents a unique perspective and offers specific advantages when trying to describe and define normal vs. abnormal. However, each perspective also has specific limitations, and attempting to use any one of them in isolation as the sole determinant of what is abnormal leaves you with an incomplete and oversimplified view of abnormal behavior.

Perhaps the simplest definition of what is abnormal involves deviation from what a group considers correct or acceptable. Each group develops a set of rules and expectations, or norms, for behavior under a variety of cir­cumstances. A norm may be explicit (e.g., written laws) or implicit, but group membership and acceptance is largely determined by adherence to the norm. Deviation from the norm is often discouraged because it threatens group integrity and cohesion, and repeated norm violations may result in negative consequences for the deviant individual. Obviously, groups can vary in size and construction (e.g., your immediate family versus all people in the United States in your age group), and the degree of influence their norms have on your own behavior will depend in part on how much you value being a member of that group and how influential your own behavior is within the group (i.e., it is a feedback loop—your behavior is influenced by the norm while also helping to define the norm). The advantage of this approach is that it necessarily includes norms that are current and relevant to the group in ques­tion. The obvious limitation of this viewpoint is that any behavior that is new or different and runs counter to a group’s preexisting norms will be labeled and treated as deviant, a term that carries a strong negative connotation. The negative connotation and resulting stigmatization associated with being labeled deviant may in fact be one of the potential consequences designed to prevent a person from drifting too far away from the values and beliefs of the group. This may sound very stifling and overly rigid to some people. In Western cultures, such as the United States in particular, maintaining balance between group affiliation and individual identity is important because of the value Americans place on individualism and freedom of choice. Another important limitation is the consider­ation that even the most pervasive norms are not stable or static; what is generally acceptable today (e.g., hairstyles, fashions, tattoos, and body piercing) may be laughably deviant in the future.

If psychologists define what is normal by quantifying what is average or typical of a group, then abnormal is anything unusual, or that which lies outside an accepted range. Psychologists often use a cutoff of two standard deviations above or below the mean to define something as being highly unusual or rare (i.e., statistically significant), as this represents the extreme scores (upper and lower 2.5 percent approximately) of a normal frequency distribution. By comparing an individual’s score to the average score of an entire sample, psychologists can make probabilistic statements about the likelihood of obtaining a specific score randomly or by chance alone, versus obtaining that same score because the individual most likely is truly and statistically different from the sample. This approach has the advantage of being quantified and more objective than other perspectives, and thus applicable in the use of statistical procedures and scientific interpretations of data. However, this approach has the disadvantage of labeling anything that is statistically extreme as abnormal, even if it is a desirable trait (e.g., a very high IQ). Additionally, any cutoff used is an arbitrary one that may be influenced by sample size or the shape of the frequency distribution, and there is lots of gray area between what is easily defined as average and what is obviously atypical in the statistical sense. This issue is made even more apparent when one considers the relative lack of precision and measurement error that psychologists often have to take into account when trying to assess traits and behaviors that may be considered indicators of mental disorder.

If psychologists use measures of daily functioning (occupational success, academic performance, social/ interpersonal interaction, aspects of self-care, etc.) to define what is normal, then they would define as abnormal or dysfunctional anything that prevents maximal or ideal functioning. This approach has the advantage of using behaviors that are typically observable and measurable (e.g., salary, GPA, number of close friends, cholesterol levels, etc.), and is flexible enough to account for different developmental stages and individual differences. This flex­ibility, however, is also the primary disadvantage of this perspective because maximal functioning is a concept that depends on numerous other factors: age, cultural expec­tations, personal values, and so on. Getting an average grade on an important exam may be perfectly acceptable to a struggling student simply trying to pass a course, yet thoroughly unacceptable to another student on academic scholarship who wants to pursue a graduate degree. The issue then becomes one of deciding which expert deter­mines what ideal functioning looks like for any given per­son. This is not impossible to do, but it does require sound clinical judgment combined with a high level of skill and experience to gather and assess relevant data.

Because normality differs from person to person, it might be necessary to use a perspective that pays very close attention to individual levels of distress. Assessing personal distress or unhappiness as a means of defin­ing what is abnormal includes measuring the frequency, intensity, and duration of symptoms that are cognitive, emotional, physical, or some combination of the three. Whereas using dysfunction includes elements of inter­personal functioning as already mentioned, using distress could be thought of as a way of determining intrapersonal functioning. Individual levels of pain, anxiety, anguish, and so forth are important indicators of abnormality regardless of social norms, statistical rarity, or daily func­tioning. Self-reports of the severity, origin, and meaning of symptoms are an important source of information, and can be a powerful component of a therapeutic relationship. In fact, the goal of therapy may often include work on defin­ing what being happy means and helping a person find ways to move closer to that ideal state. Relying on personal distress as the defining feature of abnormality obviously assumes that personal distress exists in the first place, an assumption that may very well be fallacious, particularly in cases of acute psychosis or severe personality disorders. Additionally, people are often motivated toward productive goals by their anxieties and insecurities, thus one could question if an equal but opposite state of perfect happi­ness exists, and whether it is even possible or beneficial to eliminate all sources of personal distress. This may be an important philosophical or existential issue, but in reality it represents an artificial and oversimplified dichotomy. When levels of distress paralyze, debilitate, and otherwise prevent individuals from feeling like themselves on a daily basis, even modest relief can be a welcome change of pace and a more achievable goal, thus rendering the issue of achieving total happiness and eliminating all sources of stress a moot point.

Finally, if the synonym “maladaptive” is used as the primary reference point, then anything that causes harm or increases the risk of harm to self or others serves as an indicator of abnormality. Physical injuries, suicide attempts, substance abuse, indiscriminant sexual behavior, and extreme sensation seeking could all be easily seen as maladaptive behaviors, because they all represent a high level of severity and risk. The problem is that even though this elevated level of harm and risk is easy to spot when it occurs, it does not occur in every case of what profes­sionals consider abnormal, and in fact may be the least prevalent of all indicators of abnormality (Comer, 2001). This obviously limits the utility of this criterion to define what is and is not normal.

It should be apparent by now that, as stated previ­ously, no single element can be used in isolation to achieve a definition of abnormality that is sufficient. By combining several of these factors into a working defini­tion of abnormality, psychologists can take advantage of the strengths of each perspective while avoiding or minimizing the inherent individual disadvantages. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), specifically incorporates several of these dimensions into each set of diagnostic cri­teria for various disorders and syndromes. However, even this approach is relative and dynamic, and will always depend on the culture and timing surrounding what is defined as normal.

Just as there are multiple dimensions used to define what is abnormal, there are multiple theoretical models in use today to help describe and predict abnormal behavior as well as dictate treatment methods and techniques. In order to fully understand these models and put them in proper perspective, a brief review of the history of abnor­mal psychology is in order.

Read more about Abnormal Psychology:

• History of Abnormal Psychology
• Assessment and Research
• Diagnosis and Treatment

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• v.18(5); 2017 May

The impact of environment on abnormal behavior and mental disease

Hannelore ehrenreich.

1 Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany

The risk of mental diseases is determined by both genetic and environmental factors, the latter of which may have an even greater impact. To assess individual risk and design efficient preventive measures will require phenotyping environmental risk factors.

“Doctor, as an expert on mental diseases, can you tell me what my chances are of being diagnosed with schizophrenia?” I am seeing a 23‐year‐old man, Albert, who came with his mother to my office. I learn that his monozygotic twin brother, Greg, who grew up with his father in Berlin, was recently diagnosed with schizophrenia. Albert has been living with his mother in a rural area near Hanover since his parents divorced, with each of them taking one of the twin babies along. There had obviously not been too much contact between them since.

Disease starts at a certain threshold, which is defined to some degree by societal and cultural standards.

What can I tell Albert? The concordance rate of schizophrenia in monozygotic twins is ~50%—indicating that, despite a 100% shared genome, there is a 50% chance that he will stay healthy, even though his twin brother is affected 1 . It also means that there must be other factors at work, which significantly add to any genetic predisposition for behavioral abnormalities up to mental diseases.

When is a disease a disease?

What are these non‐genetic, environmental risk factors for behavioral abnormalities and mental disease? On the way to offering a satisfying answer based on state‐of‐the‐art research, a central, even philosophical question arises: How do behavioral abnormalities contribute to what we call a disease? And equally important, when does a disease start to be a disease?

Most of us can be depressed, lose our normal drive and pleasure at times, or be somewhat autistic when we intensely concentrate on a particularly interesting puzzle, or even become paranoid in certain situations. In other words, human (and animal) behavior can be regarded as consisting of quantifiable traits. Disease starts at a certain threshold, which is defined to some degree by societal and cultural standards 2 . Reaching this threshold is the net result of the interaction between genetic and environmental risk and protective factors. Along these lines of thought, would it perhaps be better to talk about risk that lastingly shapes our behavior rather than only risk of mental illness?

Greg and Albert's story provides some insights to understand the importance of these questions. Greg is suffering from full‐blown paranoid schizophrenia: He feels hounded by aliens and hears voices that tell him how to protect himself from this extraterrestrial threat. Among others, these voices tell him to set fire in the house or to short‐circuit the power outlets in the kitchen. Albert is sometimes suspicious of some of his fellow physics students, whom he thinks spy on him to use his ideas or his experimental results, but he can easily ignore these thoughts when his classmates ask him, as a particularly talented colleague, for his help. Here we have two examples of paranoid behavior in individuals with an identical genetic background: one severe, non‐correctable, and even dangerous for self and others, the other in the frame of a still healthy personality. In Greg's case, it is likely that environmental factors pushed his genetic predisposition for paranoid behavior over the threshold to develop full‐blown schizophrenia. We should always keep in mind that the expression of a mental disease is never completely separable from the underlying inherent personality features of the affected subject. In mental disease, the original personality characteristics often emerge in an exaggerated (pathological) way.

We should always keep in mind that the expression of a mental disease is never completely separable from the underlying inherent personality features of the affected subject.

Another example from the story of the twins may further help to answer the central question of when a disease becomes a disease. Albert, the healthy twin, had gone through a phase which one could—in retrospect—interpret as an “abortive” disease prodrome. This so‐called prodrome is a period of 2–5 years before the onset of schizophrenia, which is variably characterized by dropping performance in school and learning problems, social withdrawal, depression, restlessness, and suicidal ideation or suicide attempts. A prodrome is often very hard to recognize as such, since puberty is an overall difficult time for almost anybody and symptoms may be non‐specific. During early puberty, Albert often thought about being worthless and about dying, and his performance in school clearly suffered. But his mother and her new partner, both teachers, unconditionally supported him during these difficult years. At the age of 17, he became the best student in his class. He is now finishing his examinations with excellence.

Greg, in turn, had a complete prodrome with all of the typical features. His father, a busy banker, found him unapproachable during these years. He hung out with problematic and partly criminal peers in Berlin, consumed cannabis and tried other drugs, frequently skipped school, and made his first suicide attempt at the age of 19. Three years later, he had not graduated when he had his first psychotic episode. This example tells us again that a genetic substrate can undergo different environmental shaping via risk and protective factors, which results in healthy coping versus mental disease.

Sorting out environmental risk factors

We therefore need to specify potential or proven environmental risk factors for altered behavior or mental illness. The sociology or sociopsychology literature that analyzes externalizing behavior in childhood groups environmental risk factors into “child, sociocultural, parenting, and peer‐related”. Such externalizing behavior includes aggression and hostility, impulsivity and hyperactivity, and non‐compliance with limit‐setting. These behaviors have been linked to conduct disorders, attention‐deficit disorders, as well as personality disorders , early delinquency, criminality, and other forms of antisocial psychopathology in adulthood 3 .

Not all environmental risk factors are founded on unequivocally or scientifically convincing data.

In the biomedical literature, environmental risk factors are much more heterogeneous and complex and go far beyond these sociopsychological risk factors. Not all of them are equally important and scientifically sound, and there appear to be what I like to call “shades of risk”. These shades are not simply black and white; their intensity depends on the position of the light source, the perspective of the observer, and they may even melt into each other. Several “shades of risk” can be distinguished.

Type 1 shades describe primary personal, intrinsic risks that are essentially unavoidable—what may also be called “ fate” . They include, for instance, perinatal maternal infections, placental pathology, obstetric complications, low birth weight, advanced paternal age, number of siblings, season of birth, childhood infections, head injury, and adverse life events such as losing a close relative or enduring physical or sexual abuse.

Type 2 shades mark primary risk through society and surroundings that are also largely inevitable for the individual, but subject to political needs and actions. They include urban birth and upbringing, crowded living conditions, exposure to noise, air pollution, heavy metals, toxic organic compounds, and radioactivity (including natural radioactivity), famine, bullying among peers, migration, minority group status, and the parents' social status and socioeconomic position.

An extremely topical subject is migration as a risk factor of abnormal behavior and mental disease.

Type 3 shades signify clearly preventable, secondary risk factors that can act as detrimental add‐ons to preexisting factors. These are substance abuse—mainly cannabis and alcohol—but also nutrition factors such as vitamin D deficiency, or an unhealthy microbiome of the gut or skin.

Exemplifying some risk factors

Attributing neuropsychiatric diseases to environmental risk factors dates back to ancient times. Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) already associated mental disease with the constellation of the planets but also with nutrition and even developed treatment regimens based hereon. Not all environmental risk factors are founded on unequivocally or scientifically convincing data. They are often built on small numbers of individuals, are retrospective, and/or leave the “chicken or egg” question—whether they are the causes or consequences—unanswered. By way of example, the role of cannabis consumption as an inducer of schizophrenia, as self‐medication during psychotic episodes or disease prodrome, or as a side effect of a problematic peer situation has been intensely discussed. It is quite safe to say that, despite there being some truth in all these views, cannabis can induce schizophrenia in predisposed individuals, lead to earlier disease onset in a dose‐dependent manner, and trigger psychotic relapses 4 . Depending on an individual's genetic make‐up and environmental risk profile, cannabis consumption can also result in amotivational behavior, social withdrawal, or cognitive deficits upon peripubertal use.

Traumatic brain injury has also been implicated as a risk factor for mental disease, but this possibility was only recently confirmed by a nationwide Danish study of 113,906 individuals who had suffered a neurotrauma. In fact, an injury to the head between 11 and 15 years of age is the strongest predictor for subsequent development of schizophrenia, depression, and bipolar disorder 5 . In contrast, season of birth is a weak risk factor per se , but if we consider that influenza infection has clear seasonal peaks and poses a high risk during pregnancy for the unborn child to develop mental disease, season of birth may ultimately prove valid as a risk factor.

The influence of urbanicity on disease risk seems certain. But what are the exact reasons why the risk of abnormal behavior and mental disease increases if individuals grow up in an urban versus rural environment? The possible answers range from air pollution and noise to crowded living, problematic peers, and generally enhanced stress 6 . In order to understand more about the discrete individual risk factors that belong to urban environments, we would need to separate these as much as possible, as not all cities are crowded, not all are heavily polluted, and not all are noisy in the center. This would require large international efforts with unrestricted data and information sharing to compare cities regarding living conditions, the number and status of minorities and migrants, smog, and mental disease prevalence. Quality of housing would have to be measured as much as rush hour traffic, commuting possibilities and public transportation, or the availability of leisure activities and ways to relax to name just a few contributing factors of “urbanicity”.

An extremely topical subject is migration as a risk factor of abnormal behavior and mental disease. But again, why is it? To understand its role, we must first ask what the driving forces are for people to migrate, and which problems they have to face in their new country. How much does the culture of their country of origin differ from their new homeland? Ultimately, we must analyze why second‐generation migrants are similarly or even more at risk. All these questions have high political and practical relevance; they are at present predominantly “answered” with some “logical assumptions”, but urgently need to be addressed in a systematic scientific approach parallel to efforts toward optimizing integration for migrants.

… phenotyping of environment and individual environmental risk accumulation will be crucial to identify the root cause of behavioral abnormality and mental disease.

In the case of Albert and Greg, Albert's rural upbringing may have had a protective effect, just as Greg's urban life may have been a critical risk factor. Parental care was obviously different for the twins, too. Greg started to consume cannabis around puberty, as did many of his classmates and peers in Berlin, whereas Albert has never tried it. In addition, Greg fell from his bike and hit his head while in elementary school. He was diagnosed with a concussion and had to stay in the hospital for 2 weeks. Thus, traumatic brain injury is also on his list of obvious risk factors.

Protective factors and risk accumulation

Again, genes obviously play only a limited role—if at all—and it is the balance of environmental risk and protective factors that ultimately determines the outbreak of a mental disease in a genetically predisposed individual (Fig ​ (Fig1). 1 ). This brings us to the next question, namely, which environmental factors can neutralize adverse effects or protect against mental disease? Another important point is the composition of risk factors. Which combinations are more or less deleterious? Back to the sociopsychological literature and to Albert's story, a warm home with caring and loving parents, a good education, school or professional rewards, trusting relationships, and a healthy lifestyle can likely absorb some of the negative impact of environmental risks. These considerations should more prominently inform preventive or therapeutic strategies for children at risk.

On the other hand, accumulation of risk seems to have the most severe detrimental effects. Recently, we assessed, for the first time, in more than 750 schizophrenic men environmental risk factors experienced before the age of 18 years—well before the disease started. Strikingly, we found that patients who experienced more than four risk factors had an onset of schizophrenia ~10 years earlier 4 . We note that it does make a big difference in the life of a young man whether schizophrenia starts at the age of 21 or 30. In these critical in‐between years, people finish their education, get settled in a profession and in society, and often start a family—which is seriously hampered by the disease. Importantly, the same study showed no measurable influence of genetic risk factors as derived from the latest, large‐scale, genome‐wide association study on schizophrenia, including 37,000 cases and 113,000 healthy controls. There was no significant evidence of additional “genes X environment” interaction, which emphasizes the enormous impact of environmental risk per se 4 .

In an ongoing follow‐up study, we detected that accumulated environmental risk was significantly associated with violent aggression and a five times higher likelihood of being convicted of bodily injury, sexual assault, manslaughter or murder, or a history of forensic hospitalization. This unexpected finding was confirmed in six independent replication samples, including general population ( publication in process ). It shows the severe societal consequences of risk accumulation and should make the need for preventive measures more than obvious.

What do we know about mechanisms?

How can risk factors as different as perinatal maternal infection, migration, and urbanicity act together to shape personality and co‐determine the likelihood of mental disease? Importantly, they act long before adulthood and can impact the vulnerable, developing brain whether they occur once, as in cases of neurotrauma, or repeatedly, as in continuous sexual abuse. On top of this lies the transgenerational risk: Imprinting before conception has to be taken into account, even if it is not yet well understood. Taken together, how much do we really know about mechanisms? Numerous reactions to environmental exposure have been described, including changes in neuroendocrine and neurotransmitter systems or neuronal/synaptic plasticity, but also changes to the adaptive immune system, for instance pro‐inflammatory cytokine secretion 7 . Another interesting phenomenon of still unclear significance is the large number of circulating autoantibodies directed against brain antigens in healthy individuals that increases with age. Do these autoantibodies also represent adaptive changes in response to environmental risks 8 ? Importantly, risk‐mediated alterations in brain dimensions, for instance in white matter tracts—as well as early interference with developmental myelination—affect brain connectivity and network function and lay the foundation for behavioral abnormalities and neuropsychiatric disease 9 .

We need more considerate, large international efforts to systematically quantify environmental risk factors analogous to genome sequencing and GWAS projects.

Epigenetic alterations of the genome involving histone modifications, DNA methylation or DNA hydroxymethylation, or non‐coding RNAs may also underlie some of these changes. These alterations cause changes of gene expression and have become a highly topical field of research. Here, certain risk factors—alone or in combination—can be modeled and their consequences for brain function, morphology, and biochemistry can be studied. Potential epigenetic therapy approaches are also being discussed 10 . Unfortunately, translation to the extremely heterogeneous human population is less reliable. Instead of studying the brain as an adequate target tissue, only blood cells are accessible for epigenetic analysis for appreciable numbers of individuals. But even here replications are often missing, and reproducibility remains limited. In the future, human neurons or other brain cells derived from inducible pluripotent stem cells might be helpful to study at least some translational aspects.

The need to phenotype the environment

This all points to the need to systematically and quantitatively study the influence of environmental factors on behavioral alterations and the onset of mental illness. We need more considerate, large international efforts to systematically quantify environmental risk factors analogous to genome sequencing and GWAS projects. We also need more systems biology approaches to understand the mechanisms of how environmental factors drive disease. All of these endeavors will be extremely labor‐intense and expensive. Thus, and most importantly, we need to convince politicians and funding agencies to grant adequate funding for research that addresses these fundamental societal questions.

Given the enormous influence of the environment, which far outlasts any general genetic effects on mental disease, the impact that such studies will ultimately have on our understanding of psychiatric conditions, prophylaxis, and treatment options is huge. In addition, environmental risk is ubiquitous and “unspecific”; it inflicts its share of damage on any individual, and may cause anything from mild behavioral consequences, perhaps in the presence of strong protective factors, to personality changes or, given a genetic predisposition, severe mental disease.

So, how can we assess an individual's environmental risk of developing a mental disease? Are there dichotomous, or even better continuous, measures that quantify these risks? Depending on the specific risk factor, we would need to conduct patient interviews (urbanicity, migration), study charts (birth complications, neurotrauma), and directly measure environmental conditions (air pollution, exposure to toxins). Ultimately, it may be possible to estimate the accumulated personal risk, but controlled and independently replicated studies are needed to analyze the relative impact of individual factors and their combinations. These studies should be comparable to large, international GWAS efforts. Even then, we will never be able to measure and understand all possible risks. Nevertheless, owing to its gigantic impact, phenotyping of environment and individual environmental risk accumulation will be crucial to identify the root cause of behavioral abnormality and mental disease.

Societal task: avoiding risks

But what can we do once we know? Not all risk factors are avoidable, but some—such as cannabis—are. In the case of cannabis, clinicians and the general public need to become aware of its risks. Legalizing cannabis for instance may not send the right message to the public regarding its health risks. The impact of migration and urbanicity could be alleviated with political and social measures, such as better integration of migrants or humane city planning. Other factors, such as perinatal complications, traumatic brain injury, or traumatic life events, might not be easily avoidable. Yet even for these factors, introducing prophylactic measures such as better management of at‐risk pregnancies, wearing a helmet when cycling, early therapeutic intervention after trauma, and better awareness of signals that indicate physical or sexual abuse—along with reducing false shame and building trust—might be beneficial 4 . Again, only controlled studies will help to estimate the benefits and efficiency of these potential prophylactic measures and interventions.

Unfortunately, primary preventive measures are too late for Greg. He will need secondary prevention after remission. He will have to learn, in long‐term psychotherapeutic sessions, that he is suffering from schizophrenia, a fact that is often difficult for patients and their relatives to accept, and that cannabis use will lead to psychotic relapses and negatively affect his long‐term prognosis. Albert has a reasonable chance of remaining healthy. He should be made aware of protective factors and potential risks, as well as how to avoid the latter. At present, without any efficient possibilities of phenotyping his environment for risk estimation, any recommendations will remain rather vague.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Max Planck Society, the Max Planck Förderstiftung, the DFG (CNMPB), EXTRABRAIN EU‐FP7, and the Niedersachsen‐Research Network on Neuroinfectiology (N‐RENNT).

Fundamentals of Psychological Disorders - 3rd edition

(18 reviews)

Alexis Bridley, Washington State University

Lee W. Daffin Jr., Washington State University

Copyright Year: 2022

Publisher: Washington State University

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Ray Martin, Affiliate faculty, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 4/3/24

This book does a great job at covering the material in a way that undergraduate students can understand and dive deep into topics they are interested in without being overwhelmed. The appendix and references provided are great. However, there is a... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This book does a great job at covering the material in a way that undergraduate students can understand and dive deep into topics they are interested in without being overwhelmed. The appendix and references provided are great. However, there is a lack of examples and case studies which would round out the book and its comprehensiveness.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Book has great accuracy. Instructor resources are accurate and correct (except for some very minor editing-related issues on the powerpoints).

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The authors have been updating this text. They are doing a great job

Clarity rating: 4

My students have told me mixed reviews about this themselves. I think it is very well done and, when there is an increase in depth and content, the chapters are shorter and easier to digest. However, if students are not undergraduate juniors or seniors or english is not their first language, the reading rate must be slower.

Consistency rating: 5

Excellently done

Modularity rating: 5

Book has chapters and sections that are well organized. Each chapter features headers.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Amazing organization. While this book lacks in some disorders, the other book in the series helps.

Interface rating: 4

The book is approachable and looks good. However, when printing (or printing to PDF) the book, the back matter can overwhelm students due to the depth of it. I have been navigating this by just giving students a warning that the chapter is not over 100 pages long.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Well done and easy to read.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I would like to see more examples, but it is overall well done. The inclusion of ICD-10 adds to the content. Additionally, because models of abnormality feature sociocultural perspectives, this book addresses cultural features and differences in prevalence.

Reviewed by Karen Magruder, Assistant Professor in Practice, University of Texas at Arlington on 3/8/24

This book covers all the major categories of mental disorders as codified in the DSM-5-TR. Each category includes a summary of clinical presentation, epidemiology, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment. Additionally, it sets the stage by defining... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This book covers all the major categories of mental disorders as codified in the DSM-5-TR. Each category includes a summary of clinical presentation, epidemiology, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment. Additionally, it sets the stage by defining key terms and introducing the topic, including an exploration of what defines abnormal psychology, the impacts of mental illness, types of mental health professionals, and how mental disorders are classified.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Overall, the information presented is consistent with evidence-based practice and current DSM-5-TR criteria. While I understand collapsing Depressive and Bipolar disorders into one Mood Disorders category, I would prefer to see headers stay consistent with DSM categories, to avoid confusing learners.

The DSM of course goes through updates periodically, and this volume effectively conveys the most relevant statistics, diagnostic criteria, and information. This book will need to be updated as data regarding prevalence and outcomes evolve, but it is set up well to do so.

Clarity rating: 5

Writing is clear and easy to follow. Terminology is consistently defined. Key takeaways are summarized in a clear and accessible manner, which helps reinforce important points.

There is a very consistent flow between chapters, with a predictable rhythm. Language is consistence between sections.

The authors do an excellent job of breaking complex topic into manageable chunks. Modules and subcomponents could easily be assigned for smaller readings. Effective use of headings and subheadings.

This book is very organized. The table of contents provides a helpful overview, with clear and consistent organization within chapters.

Interface rating: 3

Links make navigating through the PDF simple and straightforward. Some minor issues with images detract from professionalism and clarity, such as having Shutterstock watermarks on copyrighted images. Some charts are difficult to read due to contrast issues, granularity, and small fonts. Due to the PDF format (online and xml formats not working), there may be some issues with alt text or screen readers?

No grammatical errors were found.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This volume includes case studies to apply some of the mental health issues to real practice settings. It also sets the stage by discussing stigma surrounding mental illness. More examples of cultural factors in diagnosis and treatment would strengthen this.

What a great resource for clinicians and students in a variety of helping professions!

Reviewed by Matthew Hand, Associate Professor, Texas Wesleyan University on 2/29/24

I was very pleased with both the depth and breadth provided by this textbook. It did a good job of covering the major disorders along with their disorder categories. It also did a good job of talking about treatment and important factors related... read more

I was very pleased with both the depth and breadth provided by this textbook. It did a good job of covering the major disorders along with their disorder categories. It also did a good job of talking about treatment and important factors related to psychological disorders. I especially appreciated the authors including research findings when discussing various aspects of the disorders.

The most recent version of the textbook included disorders of childhood, which are not always included in books provided by publishers. This was a welcome addition.

Also, the book did a good job of starting the text with talking about the models of abnormality, the history of assessment/treatment, and assessment of psychological dysfunction. They were comprehensive in the way they approached these topics.

Overall, I was pretty happy with the comprehensiveness of the text.

The content in the book accurately conveyed what it's supposed to cover. Descriptions of psychological disorders and the disorder categories were accurate and the authors did a good job of citing relevant research that would provide more depth to the information given.

I did not find any information in the book that seemed inaccurate.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The content of the book focuses on the concepts and theories that are typically taught in an abnormal psychology course. Furthermore, the authors have made the material more relevant by keeping the research presented in the book current and by following the most recent version of the DSM. While many of the OER resources still refer to the DSM-5, this text utilizes information from the DSM-5-TR. I really like seeing studies cited and explained that were in the last few years rather than just focusing on studies that are a decade older or more.

The description of conceptsa nd the discussion of research results seemed appropriately clear.

Since this is a course in abnormal psychology, it should be assumed that the reader has some pre-existing knowledge of psychology concepts and is able to understand the way that these concepts are communicated in a textbook such as this.

The textbook is consistent in both the writing style and the way that content is organized in various sections and subsections.

After reading a chapter or two, a reader can reasonably predict both the tone of the writing as well as how future chapters will be organized.

Modularity rating: 3

The content in the textbook is divided by modules, which are divided by sections and broken up into subsections. This lends itself to easy adaptability because it would be easy to take out pieces and incorporate it into a course.

The one element of the textbook that might make adaptability slightly more complicated is that the chapters of the book are labeled modules. I prefer labeling each content area as chapters instead of modules because the modules in my course might not follow the same order that the textbook prefers to follow. This means that simply adopting the textbook without changing it in such a way to adhere to the order of the course is challenging unless the instructor wants to follow the material exactly in the order that it is presented in the textbook.

However, it is not a significant hurdle as editing the textbook to change the label for content areas isn’t too difficult.

The book is organized really well, and follows the organizational structure one might find in a traditional textbook from a publisher.

There is a logical sequence as to how the book is organized.

Interface rating: 5

There aren't significant issues with the text that cause any reading problems.

The type of font that is used is consistent and the authors use boxes to highlight information such as review questions andsection summaries.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

Throughout the textbook, grammar was pretty good.

I did not notice any glaring grammatical issues.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I think the authors do a good job of structuring the material in a way that it speaks to diversity and they include research findings that also go along with that message. However, there isn't an abundance of content that focuses on the ways that people in different cultures are similar and different in how they express the types of abnormality described in the book. This is pretty normal with abnormal psychology textbooks, so this text does not deviate from the norm all that significantly.

This OER is a good substitute for traditional textbook material provided by a publisher. Additionally, I thought it was better structured and more comprehensive than some of the other OERs that focus on abnormal psychology.

As I mentioned previously, I have not been able to find and review ancillary material, but the content in the textbook itself is comprehensive, current, relevant, and well-written.

This OER is a great candidate for someone wanting to use an OER in an Abnormal Psychology course.

Reviewed by Kathy Harowski, Community faculty, advisor, Metropolitan State University on 2/25/24

While this reader found the text comprehensive, at times the level of detail included was overwhelming an questionable for an undergraduate audience. Both General Psychology and Abnormal Psychology are often GEN ED courses taken by the range of... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

While this reader found the text comprehensive, at times the level of detail included was overwhelming an questionable for an undergraduate audience. Both General Psychology and Abnormal Psychology are often GEN ED courses taken by the range of undergrads and of course, Abnormal Psychology would be of even more interest and foundational for psychology majors and is often more clinically focused. The level of detail found in sections on the history of treatment and neural transmission as well as other sections was overwhelming and perhaps not key to many students. For this reader, it was too much even with my length of experience in the field in terms of how one would engage students, keep them connected to the material much less useful assessment beyond old school memorization. My concern was intensified by the lack of effort on format, paragraphs full of descriptive statistics, etc. There was a lack of charts and images to help one grasp and retain the points made; in fact, infographics were mentioned at the end of such lengthy ,packed paragraphs and then a link to the original material was provided . DK if that was about costs or how the outside organizations permit use of their work, but rough.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

In the closely read sections, there was at least one quote without attribution. Wondered about personal beliefs - section 1.4.75- to address over use and not great prescribing of psychotropic medications, there one option offered, prescribing psychologists. This is a sentence made without attribution... Really? One might also mention the decreased number of psychiatrists, the fact that most psychotropic medication is prescribed by primary care practitioners, the massive growth of the range of nursing practitioners degrees as well as the ongoing controversy around training for prescribing psychologists- which by the way, I am an advocate for...

Overall the content seemed relevant and up to date. There was a question in my reading when I saw prevelance rates for mental illness from 2001-2003 being used as current.

A strength was the clarity of definitions provided.

Consistency rating: 4

consistent but see comments around the lack of images, graphs.... In the closely read sections, did not see consistency around use of case studies nor did one see a return to the case study at the end of the section/chapter to pull the information from the chapter together as part of the summary. A strength was the amount and clarity of definitions of terms provided.

see comments about format in general. Use of side bars, boxes, more images and graphics, more case studies, would help.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

well organized, organized around DMS V sections

See comments about the overall lack of images,tables, graphics to help ideas sink in. There were graphics in some sections.

clarity and grammar were solid.

Did not seem to be highlighted in the areas closely read. Was not even mentioned at all in the foundational sections nor was global statistics around mental illness and research.

Reviewed by Tim Boffeli, PhD, Associate Professor of Psychology, Dept. Chair, Clarke University on 1/9/23

Content wise, the phrase “bare bones” would be too harsh. The book is about half the number of pages of the textbook that I am currently using. Plainly sufficient comes to mind especially considering the diminished amount of time that current... read more

Content wise, the phrase “bare bones” would be too harsh. The book is about half the number of pages of the textbook that I am currently using. Plainly sufficient comes to mind especially considering the diminished amount of time that current students are engaging textbooks. Of the not covered topics, most of them are covered in our other courses in our curriculum (Psychology of Sex and Gender). Inclusion of neurodevelopmental disorders in future editions would be encouraged. Specific DSM 5 criteria are not included in the textbook. Inclusion of the criteria during the lecture would be critical for students to comprehend the diagnostic process. Descriptions of the various disorders is sufficient to enable students to understand what transpires life wise for the person who is experiencing the symptoms.

I have no concerns about accuracy.

Relevance was achieved.

The textbook was very readable and should engage a wide variety of students who have variable interests and attention spans.

The textbook was consistent.

The textbook was easy to follow and navigate.

The textbook was organized in a logical manner that did not necessarily dictate a proscribed sequence.

There were multiple empty pages which distracted from the flow. Initially, I wondered if content was missing.

No concerns about grammar.

No concerns about cultural insensitivity.

The textbook has been renamed with assurances that the content is unchanged. Removing the word “Abnormal” is a positive step. In my lectures, we spend quality time discussing what is normal vs abnormal. That continuum is ever culturally changing. Many students who constantly experience disgruntlement bristle in class when the label of “abnormal” is applied to their lives.

Conclusion: I am a licensed mental health counselor. I think this textbook would be fine for faculty who have extensive counseling experiences. Seasoned faculty would know where to enhance the content with clinically relevant supplemental information. I did not review the supplemental instructor resources so maybe additional information are located in those resources. For faculty with limited clinical psychology experiences, I would question/be concerned about enhancements to prepare students who have a career goal involving clinical psychology interventions. With that being said, for a student who desires a general understanding of psychological disorders then this textbook should be fine.

Reviewed by Emily Abel, Visiting Assistant Professor, Wabash College on 11/7/22

This text included all of the major psychological disorders, though was missing some that I plan to discuss (neurodevelopmental disorders, sleep-wake disorders). Some of these are included in their childhood disorders book, though I would like to... read more

This text included all of the major psychological disorders, though was missing some that I plan to discuss (neurodevelopmental disorders, sleep-wake disorders). Some of these are included in their childhood disorders book, though I would like to see at least a discussion of autism spectrum disorder in the newest edition of this book, since it is so relevant to daily life and functioning in adulthood. I also think a greater discussion of developmental psychopathology in the introductory chapters would be helpful in future editions.

I did not find any factual inaccuracies while reviewing this book. I found it to be an accurate reflection of the DSM-5 and relevent recent research studies.

This book is updated to reflect the most recent research and version of the DSM. Some prevalence estimates may need to be updated periodically (before the next update to the DSM) as they tend to change for some disorders over time.

This book is particularrly well written for an undergraduate audience. I found the modules to be clear and concise (a good length for each section that will hold student attention well).

I liked the parallel structure of the each module (to include the clinical presentation, epidemiology, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment of each disorder). This was consistent across all modules.

The book is broken down into modules that are based on the broader set of disorders (e.g., Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders) in the DSM-5.

This book is well organized both in terms of using modules, and within modules (headings and consisent structure of modules across the book).

Interface is easy to use. The links and table of contents all work nicely to jump to individual modules/sections and outside sources.

I did not notice any major grammatical errors throughout the text.

The examples and descriptions I looked at while reviewing the book all appeared to be culturally appropriate. However, I will be sure to look at this element closely when incorporating the textbook this spring. I will also solicit feedback from my students about this aspect of the text.

I am considering using this textbook (or at least portions of the book) for my spring undergraduate course in Abnormal Psychology. Overall, I found it to be well-organized, well-written, and easy to navigate (in addition to a good length in terms of holding student attention). I particularly liked the consistent outline of each module to include the clinical presentation, epidemiology, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment of each disorder. I think this parallel structure would be helpful to students in understanding the key components of each diagnosis we discuss in class. I also liked the inclusion of ‘Learning Outcomes’ and ‘Key Takeaways’ that can help instructors tie the text to lecture content and activities. Within many modules, the authors also include resources where students can find additional information on that topic (e.g., the National Eating Disorders website). I found these resources to be particularly helpful because students can follow the link directly from the online textbook or PDF, and it’s not another thing I need to add to the slides for class. I typically like to give students these additional resources as we never have time to cover everything in as much depth as I would ideally like. I do think this text includes the most common psychological disorders, and the ones that students are often most excited to learn about (e.g., personality disorders). However, it is also missing others from the DSM-5 that I do plan to cover, including neurodevelopmental disorders and sleep-wake disorders. This is not necessarily a negative thing, as many courses do not include these sections. However, I will need to supplement with other materials if I choose to fully adopt this book as my primary text. Below are a few other thoughts I had while reviewing the book: 1) As with most Abnormal Psychology textbooks, this book is focused on understanding how disorders present in adulthood. As a developmental scientist, I do plan to focus a bit more of the progression of these disorders across the lifespan than is done in the book (e.g., how do features of depression change from childhood to adulthood). However, the same authors do have another excellent open text that is specifically focused on behavioral disorders of childhood that I can and will likely easily integrate in my course to address this issue. Their childhood book also does include information on some neurodevelopmental disorders, which I mentioned are missing from the current book. It’s important to note that these are critical to discuss in adulthood as they are not just childhood disorders.

2) I quite like the intro chapter and how it introduces students to important methods, types of professionals (e.g., clinical psychologist, psychiatrist), and professional societies and journals. These are all things I planned to incorporate in my course. My only comment with the two opening sections is that I would have liked to see a more explicit discussion of the developmental psychopathology theory (e.g., work by Dante Cicchetti) included in the models of abnormal psychology. I think discussing the transactional model could also be helpful, but the developmental psychopathology theory is critical to understanding abnormal psychology and is something I will incorporate in my course.

3) It is a great text for students who are interested in understanding how specific disorders are diagnosed and treated and would be great intro information for students who want to pursue clinical careers. I do think I will need to supplement to make the content a bit more applied and community focused for my purposes, though that is not a criticism of this text, but rather something I would be personally looking for in a text directly tailored to my course.

Overall, I think this textbook would be great for an introductory course in abnormal psychology and will also be useful as an open educational resource in my spring course. As I mentioned above, I will likely combine with their open textbook on childhood disorders to emphasize how disorders change across the life course. I appreciate the easy-to-use organization of the book, and I will plan to report back on what my students think after their experiences this spring.

Reviewed by Madison Smart-McCarthy, Adjunct Professor, Tidewater Community College on 8/1/22

The outline of the textbook seemed similar to other abnormal psychology textbooks. The authors did a good job explaining terminology and defining mental health conditions. I think more clinical case examples could be provided throughout the... read more

The outline of the textbook seemed similar to other abnormal psychology textbooks. The authors did a good job explaining terminology and defining mental health conditions. I think more clinical case examples could be provided throughout the textbook and perhaps inserting "food for thought" sort of sections that highlight recent studies and include questions that help students think critically about those studies. I have found sections in textbooks like that a good way to learn the material, help students apply concepts, and stimulate interesting discussion within the classroom.

I did not find any information to be inaccurate, contain errors, or be biased. Authors brought in DSM definitions and used research studies to support their claims. Authors gave credit to external sources throughout the book.

Authors state in the beginning of the text that they plan to update the sections to align with the newest edition of the DSM. Most of the information is still relevant but it may need to be tweaked in some areas to account for the DSM changes.

Authors select appropriate jargon and define parts that may not be known to an undergraduate student.

Textbook chapters are fairly consistent with how the modules are organized (DSM description, epidemiology, comorbidity, etc.). I found it very easy to review the sections because of the consistency. Students may also find this beneficial when trying to locate certain information within a chapter.

The authors divide the textbook into "Part," "Block," and "Modules," which give instructors a chance to break the chapters into smaller sections. The text for each section has appropriate font size and color.

I noticed that objectives/goals were presented at the beginning of the chapter and for each module. It may be helpful to stick to either objectives for the whole chapter or for each section.

The organization of the textbook seems similar to other abnormal textbooks from publishers, such as Pearson. Personally, I think the sections on epidemiology and comorbidity could be summarized within each section that describes the DSM definition of the disorder or summarized in a single paragraph.

Additionally, the way that the textbook is organized currently it includes "Part," "Block," and "Module." The labels "Part" and "Block" are not very descriptive. Students may benefit from more detailed labels.

The authors mention at the beginning of the textbook that they plan to update the text in August 2022. This may be a reason that images, charts, graphs, etc. were not used in the textbook. There were colored boxes at the end of each chapter that summarized the material and included review questions. No navigation problems were evident.

A discussion of cultural differences were found in various sections of the textbook (e.g. Module 1.4.7.4 and Module 5.5.4). However, I think students could benefit from more examples throughout the textbook that include individuals from a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds as well as explaining how presentations may vary depending on one's identity and/or culture. The explanation about rates of PTSD within the Hispanic population was excellent. .

Images would be a wonderful addition to this textbook. I'm excited to see the edits that will be made soon.

Reviewed by Stephanie RiCharde, Visiting Assistant Professor, Randolph College on 4/10/22

The text covered the major expected content. The authors included an effective glossary and index. The index would be improved it were clickable like the table of contents. read more

The text covered the major expected content. The authors included an effective glossary and index. The index would be improved it were clickable like the table of contents.

The authors included many relevant, accurate ideas and concepts in modules 1 and 2 to set the stage for their discussion of specific mental illnesses. I was very concerned about their lack of primary source citations, which is something about which I speak with my students extensively. I would be uncomfortable assigning a text that cites websites and blogs.

The authors presented up-to-date content that could be updated in the future if necessary.

The text is written in a style that is accessible to undergraduate students. It is easy to read and follow. The authors do not always provide enough information to explain content to those who have no previous knowledge of the topic. For example, their discussion of the disease model is not clear enough nor does it prepare an undergraduate student with no background information to answer the review question about the model at the end of the section. The authors go to great care to highlight and define many key terms in the first chapter, but then describe a study about social distance without describing what social distance is, a term that warrants explanation.

I did not notice any inconsistencies in my review.

The modules are broken down into smaller sections in a way that would make it easy to assign.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

I did not always feel that the topics were presented in the most effective order to reduce confusion. For example, the prevalence rate for serious mental illnesses was presented before a description of what a serious mental illness is. Another example is presenting information about using psychotropic medications as treatment for specific disorders prior to discussing those disorders.

I used the pdf in my review, which had no major issues. Sometimes the pages broke at places that were not ideal, but I did not see that as a major problem.

The text was well-written for the audience. I notice one grammar error.

I did not observe culturally offensive language. The authors discussed multicultural issues, but more should be added to address the many cultural issues related to the diagnosis and treatment.

In module 1, I was excited to see there was a section on deinstitutionalization, then quickly disappointed that it was a mere three sentences that glossed over the phenomenon nearly entirely.

Reviewed by Kris Owens, Assistant Professor, Grand View University on 10/14/21

As an introductory Abnormal Psychology textbook, it covers most of the main psychological disorders. It is comprehensive and accessible. Future enhancements could include sexual and gender identity disorders, research methodology, and expand on... read more

As an introductory Abnormal Psychology textbook, it covers most of the main psychological disorders. It is comprehensive and accessible. Future enhancements could include sexual and gender identity disorders, research methodology, and expand on ethical issues. The figures and infographics are clear and easy to comprehend.

The concepts and supporting empirical evidence are accurate and not biased. Periodic updates will be needed to stay current. The second edition, August 2020 includes updated references.

The textbook is relevant and it incorporates current research. It should remain relevant until the DSM 5 is revised. The content and links can be easily updated, when necessary.

The design of the textbook and the navigation is accessible and clear. The terms throughout the modules in addition to the glossary and “key takeaways” are features that students should appreciate. The simplicity and clarity of the content is appropriate for an introductory textbook.

The psychological disorders (content related to the etiology, symptoms, and treatment) are presented consistently throughout each block or module. There is uniformity in each section.

The sections are modular. I really appreciated that variety of formats (Pressbook XML, PDF, and online e-book). The navigation is easy to use and it should be accessible for all learners.

The textbook provides a comprehensive overview of the main psychological disorders with a really good structural framework. The chapter organization and uniformity are excellent. The “back matter,” which includes the glossary, references, and index is positioned in a logical order with accessible links.

The interface and navigation are excellent. The infographics are clearly displayed and easy to read online.

It was well-written. No concerns or errors noted.

The book content is culturally appropriate when addressing the complexity and heterogenous nature of psychological disorders. The cultural relevance may vary based on a variety of factors and social environments. The addition of sexual and gender identity disorders would enhance the cultural relevance.

For an introductory textbook, it is very good. Incorporating content related to sexual and gender identity disorders, research methodology, and expand ethical issues would enhance student learning. Several of these topics could serve as discussion prompts to facilitate a more in-depth understanding of cultural differences.

Reviewed by Jason Li, Associate Professor, Wichita State University on 10/5/21

This textbook is quite comprehensive as an overall introduction to Abnormal Psychology. The content of each chapter unfolds each main objective and provides clear explanations with examples and figures. I recommend this book to students in... read more

This textbook is quite comprehensive as an overall introduction to Abnormal Psychology. The content of each chapter unfolds each main objective and provides clear explanations with examples and figures. I recommend this book to students in counseling, psychology, and social work or anyone who is in the mental health field. The information is clear and easy to understand.

The content is accurate and unbiased

The content is relevant and straightforward with supporting photographs and links that can be updated.

In my view, its easy to follow each section and build connection between chapters. The language was appropriate for the context.

The framework for each section is consistent. I believe that students will enjoy this easy to follow layout and framework.

The textbook is broken down into logical and manageable sections that could be divided for instructors and students. The subheadings are very helpful in navigating readers to the objective of each section.

The book chapters are presented in a logical, clear fashion. Well organized by chapters and headings.

The interface is issue free and easy to read on a screen. The photo and tables are clearly displayed.

Well-written, with not noticeable grammatical errors.

Its imperative that we teach and address mental disorders across dimensions of race and ethnicity, countries of origin, home languages, socioeconomic status, and religious beliefs. I think that bringing in cultural implications may add to the well-roundness of this textbook.

I would use this textbook in a couple of my classes. However, I did not find references to refer to in-text citations.

Reviewed by Erin Palmwood, Assistant Professor, University of Mary Washington on 6/25/21

This text covers all key groups of psychological disorders that one might want to discuss in an Abnormal Psychology course. It provides an appropriate overview of key components within each subject area and does not "cast too wide a net" - it... read more

This text covers all key groups of psychological disorders that one might want to discuss in an Abnormal Psychology course. It provides an appropriate overview of key components within each subject area and does not "cast too wide a net" - it focuses appropriately on the most up-to-date, empirically-supported information about the etiology, symptoms, and treatment of each disorder. Additionally, the text is appropriately concise, providing key information in a way that is both comprehensive and accessible. Regarding content areas, I would have liked to see a Research Methods chapter and perhaps a designated chapter on Ethical Issues (which is currently a small section of the Contemporary Issues chapter).

The text provides accurate, up-to-date, scientifically sound information regarding the etiology, symptoms, and treatment of each psychological disorder. However, it is missing a significant number of citations for the information provided - which is a problem in terms of (1) assessing the credibility of the claims made in the text and (2) teaching students the importance of citing their work.

The text is up-to-date with current research, and it is also organized in such a way that future updates to our understanding of the etiology and treatment of different psychological disorders should be relatively easy to add to the book.

The clarity of the text is one of its major strengths. It is written in a way that is accessible and concise, and key concepts are presented in a very digestible manner. While many textbooks might take two paragraphs to explain a concept, this textbook achieves an appropriate level of detail in a few sentences - which will likely enhance student engagement with the text.

The book achieves appropriate consistently in style and approach to content.

The text has several headers and sub-headers that are logical and consistent across chapters, as well as "key takeaways" at the end of each section. An instructor could easily break down a chapter into smaller assignments for students without causing high levels of confusion.

The chapters within this textbook are exceedingly well-organized. Across chapters, content is presented in a predictable way that is outlined at the start of the chapter, and key takeaways are presented between each section to facilitate learning consolidation. However, some of the "blocks" which organize the chapters within the textbook are structured in an unclear manner, which makes it difficult to anticipate where certain chapters might be located.

No interface concerns noted.

No grammatical concerns noted.

I did not observe any culturally insensitive language in my review of the text. However, the text's coverage of cultural factors in the etiology, presentation, and treatment of psychological disorders is exceedingly limited, and I would have liked to see increased attention to the role of culture and identity throughout the book.

The information provided in the PTSD section would benefit from increased focus on current empirically-supported treatments. Of the four psychotherapeutic treatments discussed, one is critical incident stress debriefing (CISD), which has been shown to have iatrogenic effects, and one is eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR), which is controversial at best. While the text does discuss exposure therapy and CBT, it is missing explicit discussions of empirically-supported treatments like CPT and PE.

Reviewed by Janessa Carvalho, Associate Professor, Bridgewater State University on 6/23/21

Bridley's text covers most of the traditional components covered in Abnormal Psychology textbooks, though I was disappointed to see the absence of neurodevelopmental disorders and sexual/gender disorders covered. Historically, students really... read more

Bridley's text covers most of the traditional components covered in Abnormal Psychology textbooks, though I was disappointed to see the absence of neurodevelopmental disorders and sexual/gender disorders covered. Historically, students really enjoy learning about neurodevelopmental disorders and sexual/gender disorders chapter offers a nice opportunity to teach sociocultural factors in clinical psychology.

I thought the book overall made very accurate statements, with the exception that some information in the Current Trends section (Module 1) could stand to be updated.

The authors for the most part cover all relevant content in the field.

The book was written in a clear format with good readability for undergraduate level.

I found overall consistency among presentation of disorders and content within each learning module. Though there was some redundancy (classification covered in module 1 and 3).

I found the various sections and content to be relatively will encapsulated and students would be able to review content in small chunks, if thats of their choosing, without disrupting flow of learning. However, I prefer a bit more scaffolding where the content builds up to other information.

Organization and structure were quite aligned with other Abnormal Psychology textbooks I've reviewed and used.

The web format used for this textbook worked just fine for me and figures and tables were viewable without any issue.

No grammatical issues found on my end.

Would like to see more on cultural factors in various areas, including chapter 1 (societies), and the sociocultural model covered in module 2. Again, as I mentioned, the absence of a chapter on sexual/gender disorders takes away an opportunity to discuss more sociocultural factors. This seemed to be an area that the authors could focus on in a revision.

Overall an interesting book, very similar to other (costly) Abnormal psychology textbooks, and a good option for students. However, I was put off in module 2 where WebMD was cited as a source; this was disconcerting as I always encourage my students to use primary sources in their work. This was very offputting to me.

Reviewed by Angela Duncan, Lecturer, Washburn University Institute of Technology on 6/9/21

For many instructors' purposes, this abnormal psychology text will suffice or maybe exceed expectations given its depth regarding introductory material (i.e biopsychosocial model and models of abnormality). It offers an excellent introduction to... read more

For many instructors' purposes, this abnormal psychology text will suffice or maybe exceed expectations given its depth regarding introductory material (i.e biopsychosocial model and models of abnormality). It offers an excellent introduction to abnormal psychology without being cumbersome for the student. However, it is not an ideal option if you are wanting to cover childhood, sexual and gender identity disorders or health psychology-related topics such as sleep disorders as these topics are not included.

Overall, the information is consistent with other abnormal psychology textbooks and the scientific literature.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

On page 90, the authors discuss the upcoming release of ICD-11 in 2018. This statement should be updated. I would also like to see updated statistics on the prevalence of mental disorders in the “current views/trends” section (pages 31-32) as the most recent citation is dated 2014. In addition, the information about who seeks treatment could use an update as the newest citation is 2013 (page 91). I would also recommend updated empirical citations reflecting the latest research in the field. However, all texts fall prey to the challenge of staying relevant in some respects so this text is not an anomaly in that regard.

Descriptions of symptoms and diagnostic criteria are very clear and presented in simple language. Language overall is easy to understand.

The text's terminology and framework seems internally consistent.

The text is divided into six sections that can easily be reordered as desired, and the chapters make sense as arranged in each module. I appreciate the merging of somatic symptom disorders with anxiety and OCD.

At the end of each section, the authors include helpful “key takeaways” to summarize what was addressed, and “review questions” to assess comprehension. Additionally, they include a “module recap” summarizing key points from the entire module.

Images/charts are minimal, but those that are present are helpful and easy to see and interpret. The only image that may pose a clarity issue for some is figure 2.5 illustrating Pavlov’s classical experiment.

The text is well-written, without grammatical errors.

The authors provide an important section on stigma and its relevance to mental disorders as well as a section on multicultural psychology.

This is the only open access abnormal psychology text that I am aware of, and I commend the authors for a valuable first edition that is easy to read and offers an effective introduction to abnormal psychology. My criticism of this text is minor compared to the accolades. I would highly recommend this text for instructors looking for an abnormal psychology text without the excessive detail but instead concise information palatable to most students.

Reviewed by Ruth Anthony, Faculty, Portland Community College on 6/7/21

The content was appropriate and covered a wide range of disorders that are either interesting and/or common in the practicing field. I am also a clinician and found the particular disorders to be the most prevalent while working in community... read more

The content was appropriate and covered a wide range of disorders that are either interesting and/or common in the practicing field. I am also a clinician and found the particular disorders to be the most prevalent while working in community mental health.

Overall, it appeared to be accurate and error-free. Unbiased, is difficult to measure as this text still pertains to the medical model which is a dominant culture lens and perspective.

It is relevant to today's standards. It will need to undergo revision as the DSM-5 is updated. It does lack a bit in cultural relevance (see culture review below). As someone who practices as a clinician, it has some nice definitions/summaries in the disorders section. However, it lacks some in application for someone who is unfamiliar with these disorders and how they manifest. Incorporating examples of what this might look like in real life scenarios or as a presenting concern would be helpful for students. It doesn't have to be in this book, it could be something that the educator adds to further enrich students' understanding.

The text is straightforward, however, a bit dry as most textbooks are. I would recommended this textbook/abnormal phycology class to students who have already completed basic psych courses to have a bit of framework prior to increase their familiarity with the jargon. However, the terminology is well organized with definition for reference.

The entire text stayed consistent in flow, voice, and framework. The tone is similar to that of many textbooks in the field when provided information or definition. The example case studies are nice break and provide a nice reference to work with throughout.

Modularity rating: 4

The modules were outlined clearly in the table of contents and could easily be broken up into sections for class assignments. Some images to break up each module at the beginning would be nice for some added aesthetics and flare. The interface (see below) could have been a bit better though.

I was most impressed by the organization as it was clear and straight-forward. It is formatted exactly how I would which is a more technical writing style. This however makes me a bit bias due to the personal preference in organization.

The text could have been organized a bit better. The section breakage for a more aesthetically appealing read was not there. It was reminiscent of strict APA or MLA guidelines in the breakage of section. It felt a big awkward with a title heading being at the end of a page and the accompanying content being on the next page.

I did not notice any grammatical errors while reading. At least any that stood out enough to make the read difficult or awkward in flow.

I would have liked to have seen a more in-depth look into cultural difference in applying these disorders. There was brief recognition and consideration, however, at the minimum that I see in most Western texts. There are references to build cultural understanding and humility as part of the standard in practice; a good list of sources would be beneficial. I would use this resource along with several other resources with a more in-depth cultural lens.

Reviewed by Ann Tamulinas, Adjunct Professor, Massachusetts Bay Community College on 5/24/21

It covers most topics and more than adequate background as well. I like that it includes at the end of each section specific takeaways. read more

It covers most topics and more than adequate background as well. I like that it includes at the end of each section specific takeaways.

Topics appear to be accurate and references abundant.

Content is very relevant and includes biological information that is accurate and up to date and not prone to become obsolute.

Clear language, but a bit dull. Authors managed to make a fascinating subjects not so!

Text is extremely structured with precise sections and clear language and many definitions.

Text is divided into many sections and vocabulary defined and grouped in each section.

Again the text is extremely organized from beginning to end. The numbering of the sections is very precise.

Sometimes the text is cut off on the bottom of lines. The look and feel is not appealing--does not grab. More visuals needed and perhaps a better font.

The entire book is well written, but gain not in an interesting style. Too clinical.

The text is quite neutral in cultural bias. I didn't see any race, ethnicity inclusiveness of any kind.

I usually teach Computers and Technology and was unable to find a suitable text. I have taught abnormal psychology in the past so I chose this text. I had an excellent textbook (I can't remember the title, though) which was easy to follow as well as informative and interesting to read. While this one is well organized and well written, I would not recommend this text to use other than a reference.

Reviewed by Xin Zhao, Assistant Professor, Salt Lake Community College on 2/24/21

Excellent content offering, comparable to traditional publisher's. The chapters are narrative driven in the beginning. With updated 2nd edition, excellent glossary, references, index, and adequate content. read more

Excellent content offering, comparable to traditional publisher's. The chapters are narrative driven in the beginning. With updated 2nd edition, excellent glossary, references, index, and adequate content.

The content is very up to date and accurate, which I compared chapter by chapter during lecture with the DSM-V. Also did a good job noting significant changes from DSM-V-TR and in comparisons with ICD-11.

The authors did a good job incorporating culturally appropriate updates and timely changes, however, the information in this domain is a little bit thin. I find it helpful to incorporate some more updated changes in the field and current events to supplement the text.

The written text is excellent. Very easy to read and engaging for the reader, even without technical background. Very appropriately done, especially for psychology students who most likely have been exposed to some of these content in lower level psychology classes. Language and terminology are up to the latest standard.

Terminology and framework consistent throughout the textbook and in line with DSM-V standards.

The updated 2nd edition improved on the organization of modules, making the different disorder information easily accessible according to appropriate diagnostic areas.

Perhaps one of the significant strength of this textbook is the organization. Very easy to find relevant disorder and learn about them from a student perspective. With the updated version, it follows closely with how DSM-V is organizing the diagnoses.

Both the Pressbook and pdf versions are clear and displayed correctly.

No grammatical errors detected.

The textbook made attempts to introduce cultural factors in each respective chapters. However, I would like to see later versions build upon this interest and facilitate more in depth discussions about multiculturalism.

The ancillary material offered were excellent, including visual-based powerpoint slides, and learning objective based test banks. Highly recommend reaching out to authors to supplement teaching.

Reviewed by Angela Mar, Lecturer, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 11/13/20

The textbook does an adequate job of covering the essential topics of the field, and additionally provides a glossary and index that would help a reader find key concepts quickly and efficiently. read more

The textbook does an adequate job of covering the essential topics of the field, and additionally provides a glossary and index that would help a reader find key concepts quickly and efficiently.

To the extent of this review, the text is accurate and error-free. The textbook states facts, so bias should not be an issue.

The topic of abnormal psychology is going to be one that is studied for generations to come. Although, the diagnostic manual (DSM) is already in its 5th edition and was created in a way to allow for evolve with times and society, so this textbook will need to be updated to adhere to the newest diagnostic guidelines.

Students who take an abnormal psychology course are usually in their fourth year, almost ready to graduate. Given this, the textbook's clarity should be on par with that of the students' level.

The terminology is consisten throughout the text and is in line with the DSM diagnostic guidelines.

I like who the textbook is divided into diagnostic blocks to help the student become familiar with diagnostic guidelines.

I like how the book reads like the DSM diagnostic manual. The same class of disorders are paired together to better understand the disorders and the similarities between them, which is helpful because of the incidence of comorbidity.

No problems while reviewing.

No grammatical errors were encountered during the review of this textbook.

The textbook does a fair job of including cultural awareness and sensitivity into the relaying of demographic information about the incidence of each disorder.

Reviewed by Mary Ann Woodman, Adjunct Professor, Rogue Community College on 8/10/20

Bridley and Daffin provide one of the most comprehensive treatments of mental health and illness offered in an open textbook. The authors cover nearly every subject and learning objective required for a college introductory course on Abnormal... read more

Bridley and Daffin provide one of the most comprehensive treatments of mental health and illness offered in an open textbook. The authors cover nearly every subject and learning objective required for a college introductory course on Abnormal Psychology. They begin with a story to capture the reader’s interest and lay out the intention and format so that it is uncomplicated and clearly understood. The writing style appears easy to read, full of useful, insightful information. There is a significant glossary, list references and an index at the end.

The content of the text seems quite accurate and up to date. The authors present subject matter in an unbiased and objective manner. The subject matter as well as the notes on changes in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual and International Classification of Diseases are devoid of errors.

The content seems current and relevant especially to college students who are preparing to work in human services careers. The authors interface statistics, modern research articles and web sites to support the concepts. The text is arranged in a way that new additions could be easily added in the future. The book could use more stories, narratives and visuals supporting the content especially case studies which students may encounter in their lives. Examples of how to apply what one learns to real life would greatly enrich the textbook and easy to coalesce.

The text is written in lucid, intelligible, easy to read prose. Brief introductions and summaries are offered throughout the book which enhances clarity. No part of the written material seems confusing to the reader. The language and terminology are standard in terms of the learning objectives and information. It may need to be made accessible to students with learning disabilities and thus easily utilized in online course platforms such as Blackboard.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. The authors might consider spelling out terms in headings such as BDD, BED and FBT. However, the format is totally consistent throughout the entire book.

The outline of the book is most impressive. The text is readily divisible with reading sections and sub- headings that are precise and uncomplicated. There are no areas with large blocks of text that require further subdivision. The learning objectives are implemented with ease and flow. Having the learning objectives explained is an advantage for college curriculum purposes. There are no sections with an overload of written material nor is there overly self-referential material in the book.

The written material is presented in a logical, explicit and clear fashion. The six modules are laid out with titles and each module subdivided into sections. The authors begin “setting the stage” by introducing the notion of what it means to be normal and move into definitions of abnormality citing the traditional criteria: dysfunction, distress, defiance and danger. They integrate positive psychology with abnormal psychology, so the reader has a broader vision of the field. The history of mental illness, various theories and brief descriptions of the major research methods establish a foundation for the study. Concepts are backed up with research and website references. Clinical assessment, diagnosis and treatment contains just the right amount of information. The remainder of the modules treat most of the psychiatric disorders listed in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual, with a concise introduction and focus on clinical presentation, epidemiology, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment options. The authors refer the students back to modules 1-3 for reminders of theory and causality. The book includes some information on psychopathology, law, ethics and leaves the reader wondering if gaming is an addiction. It is missing sexual and sleep disorders. Finally, each module is recapped at its close.

The visuals interfaced in the text regarding the nervous system and classical conditioning support the written material. There does not seem to be any distortions, navigation problems or display features that confuse or distract the reader. The remainder of the book contains very few graphs, tables or visuals which would be very useful learning tools to add in the future.

The text contains no grammatical or spelling errors.

The authors state that “culture-sensitive therapies have been developed increasing awareness of cultural values, hardships, stressors, and/or prejudices, the identification of suppressed anger and pain; and raising the client’s self-worth.” Here is one example: “Individuals from non-Western countries (China and other Asian countries) often focus on the physical symptoms of depression- tiredness, weakness, sleep issues, and less of an emphasis on the cognitive symptoms. Individuals from Latino and Mediterranean cultures often experience problems with “nerves” and headaches as primary symptoms of depression (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Multi-cultural psychology appears somewhat integrated into the text material. Naturally, more examples inclusive of race and ethnicity could be employed in the future including Native American and other indigenous cultures.

The book includes common treatments used for mental illness: CBT, IPT, Modeling, Biofeedback, Rational-Emotive Therapy, EMDR, Exposure and Desensitization, Hypnosis, Relaxation Training, Aversion Therapy, Emotional Regulation and others. It would be helpful to expand treatment options to include Naturopathy (homeopathy, acupuncture, herbal medicine etc), Orthomolecular Medicine (Nutritional Therapy, and Energy Psychology such as EFT (Emotional Freedom Technique, Reiki, Neuro-linguistic Programming, and Group Therapy Workbooks, such as Anger and Stress Management, Drug and Alcohol Programs or SAMHSA Trauma Informed Care Manual that lists numerous programs for Post Traumatic Stress for example. The authors could provide at least one study on the benefits of spiritual practices such as prayer, ritual, mindfulness, music, tribal dance, yoga etc. The significance of spirituality and religious practices is overlooked. A more comprehensive list of various treatments could be included as an appendix.

In the section on the history of mental illness, there could be a comment on the fact that former methods of treatment are still employed today and have been improvised to meet the challenges of modernity. ECT, still used in psychiatric hospitals and exorcism/deliverance therapy employed in various religious traditions are merely two examples.

Another option would be to place pharmacology at the end of the treatment list instead of the first, primary one in the sections of each module. Then comment about how prescription drugs have side-affects and are sometimes abused by the recipient.

A graph of specific phobias, list of common “stressors” with reference to various stress inventories, and examples of adjustment disorders related to college students would enrich the text . The section on suicide could be expanded further as well as additional treatments and current programs for neurocognitive disorders.

Overall, Bridley and Daffin have accomplished a major task in edition one. It would be a welcomed text for a college course in Abnormal Psychology.

Table of Contents

Part I. Setting the Stage

• Module 1: What is Abnormal Psychology?
• Module 2: Models of Abnormal Psychology
• Module 3: Clinical Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Part II. Mental Disorders - Block 1

• Module 4: Mood Disorders
• Module 5: Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
• Module 6: Dissociative Disorders

Part III. Mental Disorders - Block 2

• Module 7: Anxiety Disorders
• Module 8: Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
• Module 9: Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Part IV. Mental Disorders - Block 3

• Module 10: Feeding and Eating Disorders
• Module 11: Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

Part V. Mental Disorders - Block 4

• Module 12: Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
• Module 13: Personality Disorders

Part VI. Mental Disorders - Block 5

• Module 14: Neurocognitive Disorders
• Module 15: Contemporary Issues in Psychopathology

Ancillary Material

• Ancillary materials are available by contacting the author or publisher .

About the Book

Fundamentals of Psychological Disorders (formerly Abnormal Psychology) is an Open Education Resource written by Alexis Bridley, Ph.D. and Lee W. Daffin Jr., Ph.D. through Washington State University. The book tackles the difficult topic of mental disorders in 15 modules and is updated through the DSM-5-TR. This journey starts by discussing what abnormal behavior is by attempting to understand what normal behavior is. Models of abnormal psychology and clinical assessment, diagnosis, and treatment are then discussed. With these three modules completed, the authors next explore several classes of mental disorders in 5 blocks. Block 1 covers mood, trauma and stressor related, and dissociative disorders. Block 2 covers anxiety, somatic symptom, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Block 3 covers eating and substance-related and addictive disorders. Block 4 tackles schizophrenia spectrum and personality disorders. Finally, Block 5 investigates neurocognitive disorders and then ends with a discussion of contemporary issues in psychopathology. Disorders are covered by discussing their clinical presentation and DSM Criteria, epidemiology, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment options.

About the Contributors

Alexis Bridley , Washington State University

Lee W. Daffin Jr. , Washington State University

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Module 2: Research and Ethics in Abnormal Psychology

Why it matters: psychological research, why learn about research and ethics in abnormal psychology.

How do you know what you know? And how do you know that what you believe to be true is really true? Many of us might just say that we know what we know because of what we have experienced in life. People are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear, and they often develop ideas or hypotheses about why things are the way they are. Sometimes we just have a gut feeling about certain things based on phenomena we have observed. However, if we are to be objective, one way of finding out if we are accurate in our beliefs is to conduct research. Consider the types of headlines that you might read in the popular media:

• Diet of fish ‘can prevent’ teen violence [1]
• Social isolation may have a negative effect on intellectual abilities [2]

Each of these statements is biased in one way or another.  Both contain a direct claim that the writer wishes the audience to accept; however,  there is some problem with design, methodology, or analysis making it possible to account for the findings by considering other variables or even a rival hypothesis. It is possible the  research findings were reported incorrectly. S tatements like the ones above should only be made if there were empirical research studies to back up the results or findings.  Results from the studies need to be conveyed in an objective manner.  Furthermore, only a specific type of experimental research design should be used before making these statements.

This issue is important in abnormal psychology. Is the will to live a consequence or predictor of depression?  [3] We may think we know the answer based on our life experiences or based on our clinical practice, but w hat we think we know about mental health and where mental disorder comes from  should be verified and clarified in rigorous research studies.

In their research, psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys to describe behavior. They use correlation to assess the relationship between variables and use experimentation to uncover cause-effect relationships. Researchers use statistics to describe their data, assess relationships between variables, and determine whether differences are significant.

Watch the CrashCourse video to review the main types of research studies that you learn about in this module, then read through the following examples and see if you can come up with your own design for each type of study.

You can view the transcript for “Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology #2” here (opens in new window) .

• Hinsliff, G. (2003, September 14). Diet of fish ‘can prevent’ teen violence. The Observer . Retrieved from www. theguardian.com/politics/2003/sep/14/science.health. ↵
• Social isolation may have a negative effect on intellectual abilities. (2007, October 30). Medical News Today . Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ releases/87087.php. ↵
• Carmel S, Tovel H, Raveis VH, O'Rourke N. Is a Decline in Will to Live a Consequence or Predictor of Depression in Late Life? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2018 Jul;66(7):1290–1295. doi: 10.1111/jgs.15394. Epub 2018 Apr 20. PMID: 29676436. ↵
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Introduction to Psychological Research. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:QKvTPo6D@4/Introduction . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.
• Understanding Driver Distration. Provided by : American Psychological Association. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XToWVxS_9lA&list=PLxf85IzktYWJ9MrXwt5GGX3W-16XgrwPW&index=9 . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Psychological Research - Crash Course Psychology #2. Authored by : Hank Green. Provided by : CrashCourse. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

80 fascinating psychology research questions for your next project

Last updated

15 February 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Psychology research is essential for furthering our understanding of human behavior and improving the diagnosis and treatment of psychological conditions.

When psychologists know more about how different social and cultural factors influence how humans act, think, and feel, they can recommend improvements to practices in areas such as education, sport, healthcare, and law enforcement.

Below, you will find 80 research question examples across 16 branches of psychology. First, though, let’s look at some tips to help you select a suitable research topic.

• How to choose a good psychology research topic

Psychology has many branches that break down further into topics. Choosing a topic for your psychology research paper can be daunting because there are so many to choose from. It’s an important choice, as the topic you select will open up a range of questions to explore.

The tips below can help you find a psychology research topic that suits your skills and interests.

Tip #1: Select a topic that interests you

Passion and interest should fuel every research project. A topic that fascinates you will most likely interest others as well. Think about the questions you and others might have and decide on the issues that matter most. Draw on your own interests, but also keep your research topical and relevant to others.

Don’t limit yourself to a topic that you already know about. Instead, choose one that will make you want to know more and dig deeper. This will keep you motivated and excited about your research.

Tip #2: Choose a topic with a manageable scope

If your topic is too broad, you can get overwhelmed by the amount of information available and have trouble maintaining focus. On the other hand, you may find it difficult to find enough information if you choose a topic that is too narrow.

To determine if the topic is too broad or too narrow, start researching as early as possible. If you find there’s an overwhelming amount of research material, you’ll probably need to narrow the topic down. For example, instead of researching the general population, it might be easier to focus on a specific age group. Ask yourself what area of the general topic interests you most and focus on that.

If your scope is too narrow, try to generalize or focus on a larger related topic. Expand your search criteria or select additional databases for information. Consider if the topic is too new to have much information published on it as well.

Tip #3: Select a topic that will produce useful and relevant insights

Doing some preliminary research will reveal any existing research on the topic. If there is existing research, will you be able to produce new insights? You might need to focus on a different area or see if the existing research has limitations that you can overcome.

Bear in mind that finding new information from which to draw fresh insights may be impossible if your topic has been over-researched.

You’ll also need to consider whether your topic is relevant to current trends and needs. For example, researching psychology topics related to social media use may be highly relevant today.

• 80 psychology research topics and questions

Psychology is a broad subject with many branches and potential areas of study. Here are some of them:

Developmental

Personality

Experimental

Organizational

Educational

Neuropsychology

Controversial topics

Below we offer some suggestions on research topics and questions that can get you started. Keep in mind that these are not all-inclusive but should be personalized to fit the theme of your paper.

Social psychology research topics and questions

Social psychology has roots as far back as the 18th century. In simple terms, it’s the study of how behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others. It is the science of finding out who we are, who we think we are, and how our perceptions affect ourselves and others. It looks at personalities, relationships, and group behavior.

Here are some potential research questions and paper titles for this topic:

How does social media use impact perceptions of body image in male adolescents?

2. Is childhood bullying a risk factor for social anxiety in adults?

Is homophobia in individuals caused by genetic or environmental factors?

What is the most important psychological predictor of a person’s willingness to donate to charity?

Does a person’s height impact how other people perceive them? If so, how?

Cognitive psychology research questions

Cognitive psychology is the branch that focuses on the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving. It also explores the reasons humans think the way they do.

This topic involves exploring how people think by measuring intelligence, thoughts, and cognition. 

Here are some research question ideas:

6. Is there a link between chronic stress and memory function?

7. Can certain kinds of music trigger memories in people with memory loss?

8. Do remote meetings impact the efficacy of team decision-making?

9. Do word games and puzzles slow cognitive decline in adults over the age of 80?

10. Does watching television impact a child’s reading ability?

Developmental psychology research questions

Developmental psychology is the study of how humans grow and change over their lifespan. It usually focuses on the social, emotional, and physical development of babies and children, though it can apply to people of all ages. Developmental psychology is important for understanding how we learn, mature, and adapt to changes.

Here are some questions that might inspire your research:

11. Does grief accelerate the aging process?

12. How do parent–child attachment patterns influence the development of emotion regulation in teenagers?

13. Does bilingualism affect cognitive decline in adults over the age of 70?

14. How does the transition to adulthood impact decision-making abilities

15. How does early exposure to music impact mental health and well-being in school-aged children?

Personality psychology research questions

Personality psychology studies personalities, how they develop, their structures, and the processes that define them. It looks at intelligence, disposition, moral beliefs, thoughts, and reactions.

The goal of this branch of psychology is to scientifically interpret the way personality patterns manifest into an individual’s behaviors. Here are some example research questions:

16. Nature vs. nurture: Which impacts personality development the most?

17. The role of genetics on personality: Does an adopted child take on their biological parents’ personality traits?

18. How do personality traits influence leadership styles and effectiveness in organizational settings?

19. Is there a relationship between an individual’s personality and mental health?

20. Can a chronic illness affect your personality?

Abnormal psychology research questions

As the name suggests, abnormal psychology is a branch that focuses on abnormal behavior and psychopathology (the scientific study of mental illness or disorders).

Abnormal behavior can be challenging to define. Who decides what is “normal”? As such, psychologists in this area focus on the level of distress that certain behaviors may cause, although this typically involves studying mental health conditions such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and phobias.

Here are some questions to consider:

21. How does technology impact the development of social anxiety disorder?

22. What are the factors behind the rising incidence of eating disorders in adolescents?

23. Are mindfulness-based interventions effective in the treatment of PTSD?

24. Is there a connection between depression and gambling addiction?

25. Can physical trauma cause psychopathy?

Clinical psychology research questions

Clinical psychology deals with assessing and treating mental illness or abnormal or psychiatric behaviors. It differs from abnormal psychology in that it focuses more on treatments and clinical aspects, while abnormal psychology is more behavioral focused.

This is a specialty area that provides care and treatment for complex mental health conditions. This can include treatment, not only for individuals but for couples, families, and other groups. Clinical psychology also supports communities, conducts research, and offers training to promote mental health. This category is very broad, so there are lots of topics to explore.

Below are some example research questions to consider:

26. Do criminals require more specific therapies or interventions?

27. How effective are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treating mental health disorders?

28. Are there any disadvantages to humanistic therapy?

29. Can group therapy be more beneficial than one-on-one therapy sessions?

30. What are the factors to consider when selecting the right treatment plan for patients with anxiety?

Experimental psychology research questions

Experimental psychology deals with studies that can prove or disprove a hypothesis. Psychologists in this field use scientific methods to collect data on basic psychological processes such as memory, cognition, and learning. They use this data to test the whys and hows of behavior and how outside factors influence its creation.

Areas of interest in this branch relate to perception, memory, emotion, and sensation. The below are example questions that could inspire your own research:

31. Do male or female parents/carers have a more calming influence on children?

32. Will your preference for a genre of music increase the more you listen to it?

33. What are the psychological effects of posting on social media vs. not posting?

34. How is productivity affected by social connection?

35. Is cheating contagious?

Organizational psychology research questions

Organizational psychology studies human behavior in the workplace. It is most frequently used to evaluate an employee, group, or a company’s organizational dynamics. Researchers aim to isolate issues and identify solutions.

This area of study can be beneficial to both employees and employers since the goal is to improve the overall work environment and experience. Researchers apply psychological principles and findings to recommend improvements in performance, communication, job satisfaction, and safety. 

Some potential research questions include the following:

36. How do different leadership styles affect employee morale?

37. Do longer lunch breaks boost employee productivity?

38. Is gender an antecedent to workplace stress?

39. What is the most effective way to promote work–life balance among employees?

40. How do different organizational structures impact the effectiveness of communication, decision-making, and productivity?

Forensic psychology research questions

Some questions to consider exploring in this branch of psychology are:

41. How does incarceration affect mental health?

42. Is childhood trauma a driver for criminal behavior during adulthood?

43. Are people with mental health conditions more likely to be victims of crimes?

44. What are the drivers of false memories, and how do they impact the justice system?

45. Is the media responsible for copycat crimes?

Educational psychology research questions

Educational psychology studies children in an educational setting. It covers topics like teaching methods, aptitude assessment, self-motivation, technology, and parental involvement.

Research in this field of psychology is vital for understanding and optimizing learning processes. It informs educators about cognitive development, learning styles, and effective teaching strategies.

Here are some example research questions:

46. Are different teaching styles more beneficial for children at different times of the day?

47. Can listening to classical music regularly increase a student’s test scores?

48. Is there a connection between sugar consumption and knowledge retention in students?

49. Does sleep duration and quality impact academic performance?

50. Does daily meditation at school influence students’ academic performance and mental health?

Sports psychology research question examples

Sport psychology aims to optimize physical performance and well-being in athletes by using cognitive and behavioral practices and interventions. Some methods include counseling, training, and clinical interventions.

Research in this area is important because it can improve team and individual performance, resilience, motivation, confidence, and overall well-being

Here are some research question ideas for you to consider:

51. How can a famous coach affect a team’s performance?

52. How can athletes control negative emotions in violent or high-contact sports?

53. How does using social media impact an athlete’s performance and well-being?

54. Can psychological interventions help with injury rehabilitation?

55. How can mindfulness practices boost sports performance?

Cultural psychology research question examples

The premise of this branch of psychology is that mind and culture are inseparable. In other words, people are shaped by their cultures, and their cultures are shaped by them. This can be a complex interaction.

Cultural psychology is vital as it explores how cultural context shapes individuals’ thoughts, behaviors, and perceptions. It provides insights into diverse perspectives, promoting cross-cultural understanding and reducing biases.

Here are some ideas that you might consider researching:

56. Are there cultural differences in how people perceive and deal with pain?

57. Are different cultures at increased risk of developing mental health conditions?

58. Are there cultural differences in coping strategies for stress?

59. Do our different cultures shape our personalities?

60. How does multi-generational culture influence family values and structure?

Health psychology research question examples

Health psychology is a crucial field of study. Understanding how psychological factors influence health behaviors, adherence to medical treatments, and overall wellness enables health experts to develop effective interventions and preventive measures, ultimately improving health outcomes.

Health psychology also aids in managing stress, promoting healthy behaviors, and optimizing mental health, fostering a holistic approach to well-being.

Here are five ideas to inspire research in this field:

61. How can health psychology interventions improve lifestyle behaviors to prevent cardiovascular diseases?

62. What role do social norms play in vaping among adolescents?

63. What role do personality traits play in the development and management of chronic pain conditions?

64. How do cultural beliefs and attitudes influence health-seeking behaviors in diverse populations?

65. What are the psychological factors influencing the adherence to preventive health behaviors, such as vaccination and regular screenings?

Neuropsychology research paper question examples

Neuropsychology research explores how a person’s cognition and behavior are related to their brain and nervous system. Researchers aim to advance the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological disorders.

Researchers may work with children facing learning or developmental challenges, or with adults with declining cognitive abilities. They may also focus on injuries or illnesses of the brain, such as traumatic brain injuries, to determine the effect on cognitive and behavioral functions.

Neuropsychology informs diagnosis and treatment strategies for conditions such as dementia, traumatic brain injuries, and psychiatric disorders. Understanding the neural basis of behavior enhances our ability to optimize cognitive functioning, rehabilitate people with brain injuries, and improve patient care.

Here are some example research questions to consider:

66. How do neurotransmitter imbalances in specific brain regions contribute to mood disorders such as depression?

67. How can a traumatic brain injury affect memory?

68. What neural processes underlie attention deficits in people with ADHD?

69. Do medications affect the brain differently after a traumatic brain injury?

70. What are the behavioral effects of prolonged brain swelling?

Psychology of religion research question examples

The psychology of religion is a field that studies the interplay between belief systems, spirituality, and mental well-being. It explores the application of the psychological methods and interpretive frameworks of religious traditions and how they relate to both religious and non-religious people.

Psychology of religion research contributes to a holistic understanding of human experiences. It fosters cultural competence and guides therapeutic approaches that respect diverse spiritual beliefs.

Here are some example research questions in this field:

71. What impact does a religious upbringing have on a child’s self-esteem?

72. How do religious beliefs shape decision-making and perceptions of morality?

73. What is the impact of religious indoctrination?

74. Is there correlation between religious and mindfulness practices?

75. How does religious affiliation impact attitudes towards mental health treatment and help-seeking behaviors?

Controversial topics in psychology research question examples

Some psychology topics don’t fit into any of the subcategories above, but they may still be worthwhile topics to consider. These topics are the ones that spark interest, conversation, debate, and disagreement. They are often inspired by current issues and assess the validity of older research.

Consider some of these research question examples:

76. How does the rise in on-screen violence impact behavior in adolescents.

77. Should access to social media platforms be restricted in children under the age of 12 to improve mental health?

78. Are prescription mental health medications over-prescribed in older adults? If so, what are the effects of this?

79. Cognitive biases in AI: what are the implications for decision-making?

80. What are the psychological and ethical implications of using virtual reality in exposure therapy for treating trauma-related conditions?

• Inspiration for your next psychology research project

You can choose from a diverse range of research questions that intersect and overlap across various specialties.

From cognitive psychology to clinical studies, each inquiry contributes to a deeper understanding of the human mind and behavior. Importantly, the relevance of these questions transcends individual disciplines, as many findings offer insights applicable across multiple areas of study.

As health trends evolve and societal needs shift, new topics emerge, fueling continual exploration and discovery. Diving into this ever-changing and expanding area of study enables you to navigate the complexities of the human experience and pave the way for innovative solutions to the challenges of tomorrow.

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Free APA Journals ™ Articles

Recently published articles from subdisciplines of psychology covered by more than 90 APA Journals™ publications.

For additional free resources (such as article summaries, podcasts, and more), please visit the Highlights in Psychological Research page.

• Basic / Experimental Psychology
• Clinical Psychology
• Core of Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Training
• Forensic Psychology
• Health Psychology & Medicine
• Industrial / Organizational Psychology & Management
• Neuroscience & Cognition
• Social Psychology & Social Processes
• Moving While Black: Intergroup Attitudes Influence Judgments of Speed (PDF, 71KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General February 2016 by Andreana C. Kenrick, Stacey Sinclair, Jennifer Richeson, Sara C. Verosky, and Janetta Lun
• Recognition Without Awareness: Encoding and Retrieval Factors (PDF, 116KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition September 2015 by Fergus I. M. Craik, Nathan S. Rose, and Nigel Gopie
• The Tip-of-the-Tongue Heuristic: How Tip-of-the-Tongue States Confer Perceptibility on Inaccessible Words (PDF, 91KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition September 2015 by Anne M. Cleary and Alexander B. Claxton
• Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task: Planning and Monitoring (PDF, 146KB) Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale September 2015 by Nathan S. Rose, Lin Luo, Ellen Bialystok, Alexandra Hering, Karen Lau, and Fergus I. M. Craik
• Searching for Explanations: How the Internet Inflates Estimates of Internal Knowledge (PDF, 138KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General June 2015 by Matthew Fisher, Mariel K. Goddu, and Frank C. Keil
• Client Perceptions of Corrective Experiences in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Motivational Interviewing for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An Exploratory Pilot Study (PDF, 62KB) Journal of Psychotherapy Integration March 2017 by Jasmine Khattra, Lynne Angus, Henny Westra, Christianne Macaulay, Kathrin Moertl, and Michael Constantino
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Developmental Trajectories Related to Parental Expressed Emotion (PDF, 160KB) Journal of Abnormal Psychology February 2016 by Erica D. Musser, Sarah L. Karalunas, Nathan Dieckmann, Tara S. Peris, and Joel T. Nigg
• The Integrated Scientist-Practitioner: A New Model for Combining Research and Clinical Practice in Fee-For-Service Settings (PDF, 58KB) Professional Psychology: Research and Practice December 2015 by Jenna T. LeJeune and Jason B. Luoma
• Psychotherapists as Gatekeepers: An Evidence-Based Case Study Highlighting the Role and Process of Letter Writing for Transgender Clients (PDF, 76KB) Psychotherapy September 2015 by Stephanie L. Budge
• Perspectives of Family and Veterans on Family Programs to Support Reintegration of Returning Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PDF, 70KB) Psychological Services August 2015 by Ellen P. Fischer, Michelle D. Sherman, Jean C. McSweeney, Jeffrey M. Pyne, Richard R. Owen, and Lisa B. Dixon
• "So What Are You?": Inappropriate Interview Questions for Psychology Doctoral and Internship Applicants (PDF, 79KB) Training and Education in Professional Psychology May 2015 by Mike C. Parent, Dana A. Weiser, and Andrea McCourt
• Cultural Competence as a Core Emphasis of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy (PDF, 81KB) Psychoanalytic Psychology April 2015 by Pratyusha Tummala-Narra
• The Role of Gratitude in Spiritual Well-Being in Asymptomatic Heart Failure Patients (PDF, 123KB) Spirituality in Clinical Practice March 2015 by Paul J. Mills, Laura Redwine, Kathleen Wilson, Meredith A. Pung, Kelly Chinh, Barry H. Greenberg, Ottar Lunde, Alan Maisel, Ajit Raisinghani, Alex Wood, and Deepak Chopra
• Nepali Bhutanese Refugees Reap Support Through Community Gardening (PDF, 104KB) International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation January 2017 by Monica M. Gerber, Jennifer L. Callahan, Danielle N. Moyer, Melissa L. Connally, Pamela M. Holtz, and Beth M. Janis
• Does Monitoring Goal Progress Promote Goal Attainment? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence (PDF, 384KB) Psychological Bulletin February 2016 by Benjamin Harkin, Thomas L. Webb, Betty P. I. Chang, Andrew Prestwich, Mark Conner, Ian Kellar, Yael Benn, and Paschal Sheeran
• Youth Violence: What We Know and What We Need to Know (PDF, 388KB) American Psychologist January 2016 by Brad J. Bushman, Katherine Newman, Sandra L. Calvert, Geraldine Downey, Mark Dredze, Michael Gottfredson, Nina G. Jablonski, Ann S. Masten, Calvin Morrill, Daniel B. Neill, Daniel Romer, and Daniel W. Webster
• Supervenience and Psychiatry: Are Mental Disorders Brain Disorders? (PDF, 113KB) Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology November 2015 by Charles M. Olbert and Gary J. Gala
• Constructing Psychological Objects: The Rhetoric of Constructs (PDF, 108KB) Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology November 2015 by Kathleen L. Slaney and Donald A. Garcia
• Expanding Opportunities for Diversity in Positive Psychology: An Examination of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity (PDF, 119KB) Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne August 2015 by Meghana A. Rao and Stewart I. Donaldson
• Racial Microaggression Experiences and Coping Strategies of Black Women in Corporate Leadership (PDF, 132KB) Qualitative Psychology August 2015 by Aisha M. B. Holder, Margo A. Jackson, and Joseph G. Ponterotto
• An Appraisal Theory of Empathy and Other Vicarious Emotional Experiences (PDF, 151KB) Psychological Review July 2015 by Joshua D. Wondra and Phoebe C. Ellsworth
• An Attachment Theoretical Framework for Personality Disorders (PDF, 100KB) Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne May 2015 by Kenneth N. Levy, Benjamin N. Johnson, Tracy L. Clouthier, J. Wesley Scala, and Christina M. Temes
• Emerging Approaches to the Conceptualization and Treatment of Personality Disorder (PDF, 111KB) Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne May 2015 by John F. Clarkin, Kevin B. Meehan, and Mark F. Lenzenweger
• A Complementary Processes Account of the Development of Childhood Amnesia and a Personal Past (PDF, 585KB) Psychological Review April 2015 by Patricia J. Bauer
• Terminal Decline in Well-Being: The Role of Social Orientation (PDF, 238KB) Psychology and Aging March 2016 by Denis Gerstorf, Christiane A. Hoppmann, Corinna E. Löckenhoff, Frank J. Infurna, Jürgen Schupp, Gert G. Wagner, and Nilam Ram
• Student Threat Assessment as a Standard School Safety Practice: Results From a Statewide Implementation Study (PDF, 97KB) School Psychology Quarterly June 2018 by Dewey Cornell, Jennifer L. Maeng, Anna Grace Burnette, Yuane Jia, Francis Huang, Timothy Konold, Pooja Datta, Marisa Malone, and Patrick Meyer
• Can a Learner-Centered Syllabus Change Students’ Perceptions of Student–Professor Rapport and Master Teacher Behaviors? (PDF, 90KB) Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology September 2016 by Aaron S. Richmond, Jeanne M. Slattery, Nathanael Mitchell, Robin K. Morgan, and Jared Becknell
• Adolescents' Homework Performance in Mathematics and Science: Personal Factors and Teaching Practices (PDF, 170KB) Journal of Educational Psychology November 2015 by Rubén Fernández-Alonso, Javier Suárez-Álvarez, and José Muñiz
• Teacher-Ready Research Review: Clickers (PDF, 55KB) Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology September 2015 by R. Eric Landrum
• Enhancing Attention and Memory During Video-Recorded Lectures (PDF, 83KB) Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology March 2015 by Daniel L. Schacter and Karl K. Szpunar
• The Alleged "Ferguson Effect" and Police Willingness to Engage in Community Partnership (PDF, 70KB) Law and Human Behavior February 2016 by Scott E. Wolfe and Justin Nix
• Randomized Controlled Trial of an Internet Cognitive Behavioral Skills-Based Program for Auditory Hallucinations in Persons With Psychosis (PDF, 92KB) Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal September 2017 by Jennifer D. Gottlieb, Vasudha Gidugu, Mihoko Maru, Miriam C. Tepper, Matthew J. Davis, Jennifer Greenwold, Ruth A. Barron, Brian P. Chiko, and Kim T. Mueser
• Preventing Unemployment and Disability Benefit Receipt Among People With Mental Illness: Evidence Review and Policy Significance (PDF, 134KB) Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal June 2017 by Bonnie O'Day, Rebecca Kleinman, Benjamin Fischer, Eric Morris, and Crystal Blyler
• Sending Your Grandparents to University Increases Cognitive Reserve: The Tasmanian Healthy Brain Project (PDF, 88KB) Neuropsychology July 2016 by Megan E. Lenehan, Mathew J. Summers, Nichole L. Saunders, Jeffery J. Summers, David D. Ward, Karen Ritchie, and James C. Vickers
• The Foundational Principles as Psychological Lodestars: Theoretical Inspiration and Empirical Direction in Rehabilitation Psychology (PDF, 68KB) Rehabilitation Psychology February 2016 by Dana S. Dunn, Dawn M. Ehde, and Stephen T. Wegener
• Feeling Older and Risk of Hospitalization: Evidence From Three Longitudinal Cohorts (PDF, 55KB) Health Psychology Online First Publication — February 11, 2016 by Yannick Stephan, Angelina R. Sutin, and Antonio Terracciano
• Anger Intensification With Combat-Related PTSD and Depression Comorbidity (PDF, 81KB) Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy January 2016 by Oscar I. Gonzalez, Raymond W. Novaco, Mark A. Reger, and Gregory A. Gahm
• Special Issue on eHealth and mHealth: Challenges and Future Directions for Assessment, Treatment, and Dissemination (PDF, 32KB) Health Psychology December 2015 by Belinda Borrelli and Lee M. Ritterband
• Posttraumatic Growth Among Combat Veterans: A Proposed Developmental Pathway (PDF, 110KB) Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy July 2015 by Sylvia Marotta-Walters, Jaehwa Choi, and Megan Doughty Shaine
• Racial and Sexual Minority Women's Receipt of Medical Assistance to Become Pregnant (PDF, 111KB) Health Psychology June 2015 by Bernadette V. Blanchfield and Charlotte J. Patterson
• An Examination of Generational Stereotypes as a Path Towards Reverse Ageism (PDF, 205KB) The Psychologist-Manager Journal August 2017 By Michelle Raymer, Marissa Reed, Melissa Spiegel, and Radostina K. Purvanova
• Sexual Harassment: Have We Made Any Progress? (PDF, 121KB) Journal of Occupational Health Psychology July 2017 By James Campbell Quick and M. Ann McFadyen
• Multidimensional Suicide Inventory-28 (MSI-28) Within a Sample of Military Basic Trainees: An Examination of Psychometric Properties (PDF, 79KB) Military Psychology November 2015 By Serena Bezdjian, Danielle Burchett, Kristin G. Schneider, Monty T. Baker, and Howard N. Garb
• Cross-Cultural Competence: The Role of Emotion Regulation Ability and Optimism (PDF, 100KB) Military Psychology September 2015 By Bianca C. Trejo, Erin M. Richard, Marinus van Driel, and Daniel P. McDonald
• The Effects of Stress on Prospective Memory: A Systematic Review (PDF, 149KB) Psychology & Neuroscience September 2017 by Martina Piefke and Katharina Glienke
• Don't Aim Too High for Your Kids: Parental Overaspiration Undermines Students' Learning in Mathematics (PDF, 164KB) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology November 2016 by Kou Murayama, Reinhard Pekrun, Masayuki Suzuki, Herbert W. Marsh, and Stephanie Lichtenfeld
• Sex Differences in Sports Interest and Motivation: An Evolutionary Perspective (PDF, 155KB) Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences April 2016 by Robert O. Deaner, Shea M. Balish, and Michael P. Lombardo
• Asian Indian International Students' Trajectories of Depression, Acculturation, and Enculturation (PDF, 210KB) Asian American Journal of Psychology March 2016 By Dhara T. Meghani and Elizabeth A. Harvey
• Cynical Beliefs About Human Nature and Income: Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Analyses (PDF, 163KB) January 2016 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology by Olga Stavrova and Daniel Ehlebracht
• Annual Review of Asian American Psychology, 2014 (PDF, 384KB) Asian American Journal of Psychology December 2015 By Su Yeong Kim, Yishan Shen, Yang Hou, Kelsey E. Tilton, Linda Juang, and Yijie Wang
• Resilience in the Study of Minority Stress and Health of Sexual and Gender Minorities (PDF, 40KB) Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity September 2015 by Ilan H. Meyer
• Self-Reported Psychopathy and Its Association With Criminal Cognition and Antisocial Behavior in a Sample of University Undergraduates (PDF, 91KB) Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement July 2015 by Samantha J. Riopka, Richard B. A. Coupland, and Mark E. Olver

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Required Courses (22 credits)

Psyn 101 - introduction to psychology (3 credits).

Psychology as a biological, behavioral, and social science. Topics include: critical and scientific analysis of human behavior, fundamentals of psychological research, biological bases of behavior, states of consciousness, learning, thought, memory and intelligence, social behavior and personality, mental health and adjustment, diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior.

PSYN 301 - Experimental Psychology (3 credits)

Methodological and experimental approaches to human behavior focusing on sensation, perception, learning, and memory. Experiments conducted in class, results analyzed, and scientific reports written. Students also design and write a proposal for an experimental project. Prerequisite: PSYN 101 and MATN 261.

PSYN 301L - Experimental Psychology Lab (1 credit)

[course description missing from catalog]

PSYN 351 - Biological Psychology (3 credits)

The biological bases of behavior and methods of study. Topics include: anatomy and physiology of the nervous system and sense organs, drugs and behavior, sleep and dreaming, eating and drinking, memory and language, brain disorders and abnormal behavior. Prerequisite: PSYN 101 or BION 101.

PSYN 493 - Advanced Topics for Psychology (3 credits)

Prerequisite: 21 credits in psychology, including PSYN 301 and PSYN 301L.

PSYN 201 - Developmental Psychology (3 credits)

Stages of life: infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Mental, emotional, and personality changes during development, and the psychological hurdles overcome. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

MATN 261 - Statistics for Social Science Majors (3 credits)

Basic concepts in descriptive and inferential statistics, including measurement scales, frequency distributions, measures of central tendency and distribution, correlation coefficients, linear regression, probability theory, binomial distribution, and parametric and nonparametric tests of significant differences. Introduction to hypothesis testing. Prerequisite: MATN 111 or examination.

PSYN 335 - Abnormal Psychology (3 credits)

Description and diagnosis of abnormal behavior. Causes, symptoms and treatments of mental illness. Basic principles of psychotherapy. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

Four Electives from the Following (12 credits)

Psyn 102 - social psychology (3 credits).

Social influences on values, attitudes, and behavior. Determinants of social perceptions and cognitions. Bases for friendship, love, prejudice, and anti-social behavior. Group dynamics involved in conformity, conflict and cooperation. Prerequisite or corequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 205 - Psychology of Motivation (3 credits)

Motivation for human behavior from the basic psychological drives to higher drives such as achievement, self-fulfillment and altruism. Emphasis on contemporary research as well as classical theories. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 210 - Theories of Learning (3 credits)

Models of animal and human learning including classical and operant conditioning, as well as contemporary theories drawn from information processing and cognitive science. Applications to education, social and clinical psychology. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 216 - Adolescent Psychology (3 credits)

This course examines the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development of adolescents. Topics include genetic, cultural, and social factors that enhance or inhibit development. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 221 - Industrial Psychology (3 credits)

Psychological techniques for selecting and training employees, enhancing morale of workers and improving their relationship with management. Psychology of marketing and advertising. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 231 - Psychological Testing (3 credits)

Theoretical and statistical foundations of psychological testing. Measurement of intelligence, aptitudes, academic skills, personality, and behavior. Includes formal and informal tests and rating scales. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 302 - Experimental Psychology II (3 credits)

More advanced research design and experimental approaches to human behavior including learning, perception, and problem solving. Scientific reports including possible honors thesis proposal prepared by students. Prerequisite: PSYN 301.

PSYN 310 - Theories of Personality (3 credits)

Description and assessment of personality. Classical approaches of psychoanalysis tract theory, humanism, behaviorism and cognitive theorists as well as contemporary research and practical applications. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 311 - Psycholinguistics (3 credits)

Psychology of language and the higher mental processes. Modern conceptions of syntactic, semantic, and lexical structure of language. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 312 - Cognition and Memory (3 credits)

Overview of approaches to thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making. Memory theories and process and neurological underpinnings. Interplay of memory and cognition. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 314 - Group Dynamics (3 credits)

This course covers the theoretical background and the practical applications of small group processes. Factors that hinder or promote group development, effectiveness and productivity are discussed, and the necessary skills for effective group functioning are taught through experiential learning exercises. Fundamental topics, such as: Group Goals, Roles, Communication, Leadership, Conflict, DecisionMaking and others will be covered. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 326 - Forensic Psychology (3 credits)

The course provides an overview of the interface between psychology and the legal system. It covers the role and functions of the forensic psychologist, the nature and methods of forensic assessment, mental health evaluations in the criminal justice system and in civil law. It will also address such special topics as jury selection and eyewitness testimony. Prerequisite: PSYN 101; recommend PSYN 335.

PSYN 325 - Drugs and Behavior (Psychoactive Drugs) (3 credits)

Behavioral effects of biochemical mechanisms of psychoactive drugs, including prescription, recreational, and illegal drugs. Topics include psychopharmacological treatment of abnormal behaviors and moods, addiction and tolerance, and the treatment of addictions. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 332 - History and Systems of Psychology (3 credits)

The origin of modern psychology within philosophy during the 19th century. Founding and growth of experimental psychology in Germany and its spread to the United States. Developments in psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, humanistic psychology, and behaviorism, and new trends. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 340 - Introduction to Counseling and Therapy (3 credits)

Theories and techniques counseling. Course includes practice in interviewing and development of basic skills necessary for successful treatment. Prerequisite: PSYN 101. Strongly recommend PSYN 310 and PSYN 335.

PSYN 345 - Psychology of Health and Illness (3 credits)

This course will examine psychological influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond when they are ill. Topics include the mind-body relationship, stress and stress management, chronic pain, headaches, biofeedback, the patient in various treatment settings. The course also examines changes in lifestyle and psychological issues faced by individuals dealing with stroke, arthritis, diabetes, heart disease, cancer and AIDS. Prerequisite: PSYN 101.

PSYN 401 - Psychology of the Exceptional Child (3 credits)

Special problems of children who differ markedly from the average: mentally retarded, brain damaged, psychologically disturbed, sociopathic, physically handicapped, culturally deprived, and gifted children. Genetics, neuropsychological and sociological aspects, as well as causes, assessment, and remediation. Prerequisite: PSYN 101 (PSYN 335 strongly recommended).

PSYN 402 - Clinical Psychology (3 credits)

Overview of clinical psychology as both an art and a science. Roles of the clinical psychologist and the scientific foundations of assessment and treatment. Prerequisite: PSYN 101. Strongly recommend PSYN 340.

PSYN 420 - Eating Disorders (3 credits)

The etiology, description, and treatment of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder associated with obesity. Relation between eating disorders and other psychopathology. Prerequisite: PSYN 101. Strongly recommend PSYN 335.

PSYN 432 - Neuropsychology (3 credits)

Cognitive function in the normal and brain-injured adult. Methods of neuropsychological assessment in clinical and research situations. Topics include consciousness, body sense, spatial understanding, language encoding, attention, memory, perceptual processing including vision, and personality. Strategies for remediation. Prerequisite: PSYN 351 or departmental permission.

PSYN 481 - Independent Study in Psychology (3 credits)

Directed study in subject matter not offered in a standard course or independent research study of a new topic. Prerequisite: Junior or higher status with appropriate Psychology GPA and departmental permission

PSYN 485 - Internship in Psychology (3 credits)

Opportunity to work as an intern in an approved organization, such as a clinic, school or hospital. The customary requirement is to work 1 day per week, keep a log of daily activity, read relevant texts and journal articles, and write a brief paper linking observations to the literature. Coordinated by a site supervisor and Touro faculty member. Prerequisite: Senior status and departmental permission.

PSYN 494 - Senior Honors Project in Psychology (3 credits)

Independent research study including literature review, protocol, methods and implementation, statistical analysis, results and discussion, supervised by a Touro faculty member or appropriate substitute. Prerequisite: PSYN 492.

Honors Psychology (43 credits)

The Department of Psychology has added an honors major. Students who complete the honors major satisfactorily will be graduated with honors in psychology. Requirements for the honors major are all those of the standard major, with the following additions:

PSYN 496 - Honors Seminar (3 credits)

Psyn 494 - senior honors project (3 credits), five electives in psychology, which must include:.

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