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Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement?

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Educators should be thrilled by these numbers. Pleasing a majority of parents regarding homework and having equal numbers of dissenters shouting "too much!" and "too little!" is about as good as they can hope for.

But opinions cannot tell us whether homework works; only research can, which is why my colleagues and I have conducted a combined analysis of dozens of homework studies to examine whether homework is beneficial and what amount of homework is appropriate for our children.

The homework question is best answered by comparing students who are assigned homework with students assigned no homework but who are similar in other ways. The results of such studies suggest that homework can improve students' scores on the class tests that come at the end of a topic. Students assigned homework in 2nd grade did better on math, 3rd and 4th graders did better on English skills and vocabulary, 5th graders on social studies, 9th through 12th graders on American history, and 12th graders on Shakespeare.

Less authoritative are 12 studies that link the amount of homework to achievement, but control for lots of other factors that might influence this connection. These types of studies, often based on national samples of students, also find a positive link between time on homework and achievement.

Yet other studies simply correlate homework and achievement with no attempt to control for student differences. In 35 such studies, about 77 percent find the link between homework and achievement is positive. Most interesting, though, is these results suggest little or no relationship between homework and achievement for elementary school students.

Why might that be? Younger children have less developed study habits and are less able to tune out distractions at home. Studies also suggest that young students who are struggling in school take more time to complete homework assignments simply because these assignments are more difficult for them.

These recommendations are consistent with the conclusions reached by our analysis. Practice assignments do improve scores on class tests at all grade levels. A little amount of homework may help elementary school students build study habits. Homework for junior high students appears to reach the point of diminishing returns after about 90 minutes a night. For high school students, the positive line continues to climb until between 90 minutes and 2½ hours of homework a night, after which returns diminish.

Beyond achievement, proponents of homework argue that it can have many other beneficial effects. They claim it can help students develop good study habits so they are ready to grow as their cognitive capacities mature. It can help students recognize that learning can occur at home as well as at school. Homework can foster independent learning and responsible character traits. And it can give parents an opportunity to see what's going on at school and let them express positive attitudes toward achievement.

Opponents of homework counter that it can also have negative effects. They argue it can lead to boredom with schoolwork, since all activities remain interesting only for so long. Homework can deny students access to leisure activities that also teach important life skills. Parents can get too involved in homework -- pressuring their child and confusing him by using different instructional techniques than the teacher.

My feeling is that homework policies should prescribe amounts of homework consistent with the research evidence, but which also give individual schools and teachers some flexibility to take into account the unique needs and circumstances of their students and families. In general, teachers should avoid either extreme.

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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

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Credit: August de Richelieu

Does homework still have value? A Johns Hopkins education expert weighs in

Joyce epstein, co-director of the center on school, family, and community partnerships, discusses why homework is essential, how to maximize its benefit to learners, and what the 'no-homework' approach gets wrong.

By Vicky Hallett

The necessity of homework has been a subject of debate since at least as far back as the 1890s, according to Joyce L. Epstein , co-director of the Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships at Johns Hopkins University. "It's always been the case that parents, kids—and sometimes teachers, too—wonder if this is just busy work," Epstein says.

But after decades of researching how to improve schools, the professor in the Johns Hopkins School of Education remains certain that homework is essential—as long as the teachers have done their homework, too. The National Network of Partnership Schools , which she founded in 1995 to advise schools and districts on ways to improve comprehensive programs of family engagement, has developed hundreds of improved homework ideas through its Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork program. For an English class, a student might interview a parent on popular hairstyles from their youth and write about the differences between then and now. Or for science class, a family could identify forms of matter over the dinner table, labeling foods as liquids or solids. These innovative and interactive assignments not only reinforce concepts from the classroom but also foster creativity, spark discussions, and boost student motivation.

"We're not trying to eliminate homework procedures, but expand and enrich them," says Epstein, who is packing this research into a forthcoming book on the purposes and designs of homework. In the meantime, the Hub couldn't wait to ask her some questions:

What kind of homework training do teachers typically get?

Future teachers and administrators really have little formal training on how to design homework before they assign it. This means that most just repeat what their teachers did, or they follow textbook suggestions at the end of units. For example, future teachers are well prepared to teach reading and literacy skills at each grade level, and they continue to learn to improve their teaching of reading in ongoing in-service education. By contrast, most receive little or no training on the purposes and designs of homework in reading or other subjects. It is really important for future teachers to receive systematic training to understand that they have the power, opportunity, and obligation to design homework with a purpose.

Why do students need more interactive homework?

If homework assignments are always the same—10 math problems, six sentences with spelling words—homework can get boring and some kids just stop doing their assignments, especially in the middle and high school years. When we've asked teachers what's the best homework you've ever had or designed, invariably we hear examples of talking with a parent or grandparent or peer to share ideas. To be clear, parents should never be asked to "teach" seventh grade science or any other subject. Rather, teachers set up the homework assignments so that the student is in charge. It's always the student's homework. But a good activity can engage parents in a fun, collaborative way. Our data show that with "good" assignments, more kids finish their work, more kids interact with a family partner, and more parents say, "I learned what's happening in the curriculum." It all works around what the youngsters are learning.

Is family engagement really that important?

At Hopkins, I am part of the Center for Social Organization of Schools , a research center that studies how to improve many aspects of education to help all students do their best in school. One thing my colleagues and I realized was that we needed to look deeply into family and community engagement. There were so few references to this topic when we started that we had to build the field of study. When children go to school, their families "attend" with them whether a teacher can "see" the parents or not. So, family engagement is ever-present in the life of a school.

My daughter's elementary school doesn't assign homework until third grade. What's your take on "no homework" policies?

There are some parents, writers, and commentators who have argued against homework, especially for very young children. They suggest that children should have time to play after school. This, of course is true, but many kindergarten kids are excited to have homework like their older siblings. If they give homework, most teachers of young children make assignments very short—often following an informal rule of 10 minutes per grade level. "No homework" does not guarantee that all students will spend their free time in productive and imaginative play.

Some researchers and critics have consistently misinterpreted research findings. They have argued that homework should be assigned only at the high school level where data point to a strong connection of doing assignments with higher student achievement . However, as we discussed, some students stop doing homework. This leads, statistically, to results showing that doing homework or spending more minutes on homework is linked to higher student achievement. If slow or struggling students are not doing their assignments, they contribute to—or cause—this "result."

Teachers need to design homework that even struggling students want to do because it is interesting. Just about all students at any age level react positively to good assignments and will tell you so.

Did COVID change how schools and parents view homework?

Within 24 hours of the day school doors closed in March 2020, just about every school and district in the country figured out that teachers had to talk to and work with students' parents. This was not the same as homeschooling—teachers were still working hard to provide daily lessons. But if a child was learning at home in the living room, parents were more aware of what they were doing in school. One of the silver linings of COVID was that teachers reported that they gained a better understanding of their students' families. We collected wonderfully creative examples of activities from members of the National Network of Partnership Schools. I'm thinking of one art activity where every child talked with a parent about something that made their family unique. Then they drew their finding on a snowflake and returned it to share in class. In math, students talked with a parent about something the family liked so much that they could represent it 100 times. Conversations about schoolwork at home was the point.

How did you create so many homework activities via the Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork program?

We had several projects with educators to help them design interactive assignments, not just "do the next three examples on page 38." Teachers worked in teams to create TIPS activities, and then we turned their work into a standard TIPS format in math, reading/language arts, and science for grades K-8. Any teacher can use or adapt our prototypes to match their curricula.

Overall, we know that if future teachers and practicing educators were prepared to design homework assignments to meet specific purposes—including but not limited to interactive activities—more students would benefit from the important experience of doing their homework. And more parents would, indeed, be partners in education.

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Is Homework Good for Kids? Here’s What the Research Says

A s kids return to school, debate is heating up once again over how they should spend their time after they leave the classroom for the day.

The no-homework policy of a second-grade teacher in Texas went viral last week , earning praise from parents across the country who lament the heavy workload often assigned to young students. Brandy Young told parents she would not formally assign any homework this year, asking students instead to eat dinner with their families, play outside and go to bed early.

But the question of how much work children should be doing outside of school remains controversial, and plenty of parents take issue with no-homework policies, worried their kids are losing a potential academic advantage. Here’s what you need to know:

For decades, the homework standard has been a “10-minute rule,” which recommends a daily maximum of 10 minutes of homework per grade level. Second graders, for example, should do about 20 minutes of homework each night. High school seniors should complete about two hours of homework each night. The National PTA and the National Education Association both support that guideline.

But some schools have begun to give their youngest students a break. A Massachusetts elementary school has announced a no-homework pilot program for the coming school year, lengthening the school day by two hours to provide more in-class instruction. “We really want kids to go home at 4 o’clock, tired. We want their brain to be tired,” Kelly Elementary School Principal Jackie Glasheen said in an interview with a local TV station . “We want them to enjoy their families. We want them to go to soccer practice or football practice, and we want them to go to bed. And that’s it.”

A New York City public elementary school implemented a similar policy last year, eliminating traditional homework assignments in favor of family time. The change was quickly met with outrage from some parents, though it earned support from other education leaders.

New solutions and approaches to homework differ by community, and these local debates are complicated by the fact that even education experts disagree about what’s best for kids.

The research

The most comprehensive research on homework to date comes from a 2006 meta-analysis by Duke University psychology professor Harris Cooper, who found evidence of a positive correlation between homework and student achievement, meaning students who did homework performed better in school. The correlation was stronger for older students—in seventh through 12th grade—than for those in younger grades, for whom there was a weak relationship between homework and performance.

Cooper’s analysis focused on how homework impacts academic achievement—test scores, for example. His report noted that homework is also thought to improve study habits, attitudes toward school, self-discipline, inquisitiveness and independent problem solving skills. On the other hand, some studies he examined showed that homework can cause physical and emotional fatigue, fuel negative attitudes about learning and limit leisure time for children. At the end of his analysis, Cooper recommended further study of such potential effects of homework.

Despite the weak correlation between homework and performance for young children, Cooper argues that a small amount of homework is useful for all students. Second-graders should not be doing two hours of homework each night, he said, but they also shouldn’t be doing no homework.

Not all education experts agree entirely with Cooper’s assessment.

Cathy Vatterott, an education professor at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, supports the “10-minute rule” as a maximum, but she thinks there is not sufficient proof that homework is helpful for students in elementary school.

“Correlation is not causation,” she said. “Does homework cause achievement, or do high achievers do more homework?”

Vatterott, the author of Rethinking Homework: Best Practices That Support Diverse Needs , thinks there should be more emphasis on improving the quality of homework tasks, and she supports efforts to eliminate homework for younger kids.

“I have no concerns about students not starting homework until fourth grade or fifth grade,” she said, noting that while the debate over homework will undoubtedly continue, she has noticed a trend toward limiting, if not eliminating, homework in elementary school.

The issue has been debated for decades. A TIME cover in 1999 read: “Too much homework! How it’s hurting our kids, and what parents should do about it.” The accompanying story noted that the launch of Sputnik in 1957 led to a push for better math and science education in the U.S. The ensuing pressure to be competitive on a global scale, plus the increasingly demanding college admissions process, fueled the practice of assigning homework.

“The complaints are cyclical, and we’re in the part of the cycle now where the concern is for too much,” Cooper said. “You can go back to the 1970s, when you’ll find there were concerns that there was too little, when we were concerned about our global competitiveness.”

Cooper acknowledged that some students really are bringing home too much homework, and their parents are right to be concerned.

“A good way to think about homework is the way you think about medications or dietary supplements,” he said. “If you take too little, they’ll have no effect. If you take too much, they can kill you. If you take the right amount, you’ll get better.”

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Write to Katie Reilly at [email protected]

Does homework really work?

by: Leslie Crawford | Updated: December 12, 2023

Print article

You know the drill. It’s 10:15 p.m., and the cardboard-and-toothpick Golden Gate Bridge is collapsing. The pages of polynomials have been abandoned. The paper on the Battle of Waterloo seems to have frozen in time with Napoleon lingering eternally over his breakfast at Le Caillou. Then come the tears and tantrums — while we parents wonder, Does the gain merit all this pain? Is this just too much homework?

However the drama unfolds night after night, year after year, most parents hold on to the hope that homework (after soccer games, dinner, flute practice, and, oh yes, that childhood pastime of yore known as playing) advances their children academically.

But what does homework really do for kids? Is the forest’s worth of book reports and math and spelling sheets the average American student completes in their 12 years of primary schooling making a difference? Or is it just busywork?

Homework haterz

Whether or not homework helps, or even hurts, depends on who you ask. If you ask my 12-year-old son, Sam, he’ll say, “Homework doesn’t help anything. It makes kids stressed-out and tired and makes them hate school more.”

Nothing more than common kid bellyaching?

Maybe, but in the fractious field of homework studies, it’s worth noting that Sam’s sentiments nicely synopsize one side of the ivory tower debate. Books like The End of Homework , The Homework Myth , and The Case Against Homework the film Race to Nowhere , and the anguished parent essay “ My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me ” make the case that homework, by taking away precious family time and putting kids under unneeded pressure, is an ineffective way to help children become better learners and thinkers.

One Canadian couple took their homework apostasy all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada. After arguing that there was no evidence that it improved academic performance, they won a ruling that exempted their two children from all homework.

So what’s the real relationship between homework and academic achievement?

How much is too much?

To answer this question, researchers have been doing their homework on homework, conducting and examining hundreds of studies. Chris Drew Ph.D., founder and editor at The Helpful Professor recently compiled multiple statistics revealing the folly of today’s after-school busy work. Does any of the data he listed below ring true for you?

• 45 percent of parents think homework is too easy for their child, primarily because it is geared to the lowest standard under the Common Core State Standards .

• 74 percent of students say homework is a source of stress , defined as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss, and stomach problems.

• Students in high-performing high schools spend an average of 3.1 hours a night on homework , even though 1 to 2 hours is the optimal duration, according to a peer-reviewed study .

Not included in the list above is the fact many kids have to abandon activities they love — like sports and clubs — because homework deprives them of the needed time to enjoy themselves with other pursuits.

Conversely, The Helpful Professor does list a few pros of homework, noting it teaches discipline and time management, and helps parents know what’s being taught in the class.

The oft-bandied rule on homework quantity — 10 minutes a night per grade (starting from between 10 to 20 minutes in first grade) — is listed on the National Education Association’s website and the National Parent Teacher Association’s website , but few schools follow this rule.

Do you think your child is doing excessive homework? Harris Cooper Ph.D., author of a meta-study on homework , recommends talking with the teacher. “Often there is a miscommunication about the goals of homework assignments,” he says. “What appears to be problematic for kids, why they are doing an assignment, can be cleared up with a conversation.” Also, Cooper suggests taking a careful look at how your child is doing the assignments. It may seem like they’re taking two hours, but maybe your child is wandering off frequently to get a snack or getting distracted.

Less is often more

If your child is dutifully doing their work but still burning the midnight oil, it’s worth intervening to make sure your child gets enough sleep. A 2012 study of 535 high school students found that proper sleep may be far more essential to brain and body development.

For elementary school-age children, Cooper’s research at Duke University shows there is no measurable academic advantage to homework. For middle-schoolers, Cooper found there is a direct correlation between homework and achievement if assignments last between one to two hours per night. After two hours, however, achievement doesn’t improve. For high schoolers, Cooper’s research suggests that two hours per night is optimal. If teens have more than two hours of homework a night, their academic success flatlines. But less is not better. The average high school student doing homework outperformed 69 percent of the students in a class with no homework.

Many schools are starting to act on this research. A Florida superintendent abolished homework in her 42,000 student district, replacing it with 20 minutes of nightly reading. She attributed her decision to “ solid research about what works best in improving academic achievement in students .”

More family time

A 2020 survey by Crayola Experience reports 82 percent of children complain they don’t have enough quality time with their parents. Homework deserves much of the blame. “Kids should have a chance to just be kids and do things they enjoy, particularly after spending six hours a day in school,” says Alfie Kohn, author of The Homework Myth . “It’s absurd to insist that children must be engaged in constructive activities right up until their heads hit the pillow.”

By far, the best replacement for homework — for both parents and children — is bonding, relaxing time together.

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Is homework a necessary evil?

After decades of debate, researchers are still sorting out the truth about homework’s pros and cons. One point they can agree on: Quality assignments matter.

By Kirsten Weir

March 2016, Vol 47, No. 3

Print version: page 36

• Schools and Classrooms

Homework battles have raged for decades. For as long as kids have been whining about doing their homework, parents and education reformers have complained that homework's benefits are dubious. Meanwhile many teachers argue that take-home lessons are key to helping students learn. Now, as schools are shifting to the new (and hotly debated) Common Core curriculum standards, educators, administrators and researchers are turning a fresh eye toward the question of homework's value.

But when it comes to deciphering the research literature on the subject, homework is anything but an open book.

The 10-minute rule

In many ways, homework seems like common sense. Spend more time practicing multiplication or studying Spanish vocabulary and you should get better at math or Spanish. But it may not be that simple.

Homework can indeed produce academic benefits, such as increased understanding and retention of the material, says Duke University social psychologist Harris Cooper, PhD, one of the nation's leading homework researchers. But not all students benefit. In a review of studies published from 1987 to 2003, Cooper and his colleagues found that homework was linked to better test scores in high school and, to a lesser degree, in middle school. Yet they found only faint evidence that homework provided academic benefit in elementary school ( Review of Educational Research , 2006).

Then again, test scores aren't everything. Homework proponents also cite the nonacademic advantages it might confer, such as the development of personal responsibility, good study habits and time-management skills. But as to hard evidence of those benefits, "the jury is still out," says Mollie Galloway, PhD, associate professor of educational leadership at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon. "I think there's a focus on assigning homework because [teachers] think it has these positive outcomes for study skills and habits. But we don't know for sure that's the case."

Even when homework is helpful, there can be too much of a good thing. "There is a limit to how much kids can benefit from home study," Cooper says. He agrees with an oft-cited rule of thumb that students should do no more than 10 minutes a night per grade level — from about 10 minutes in first grade up to a maximum of about two hours in high school. Both the National Education Association and National Parent Teacher Association support that limit.

Beyond that point, kids don't absorb much useful information, Cooper says. In fact, too much homework can do more harm than good. Researchers have cited drawbacks, including boredom and burnout toward academic material, less time for family and extracurricular activities, lack of sleep and increased stress.

In a recent study of Spanish students, Rubén Fernández-Alonso, PhD, and colleagues found that students who were regularly assigned math and science homework scored higher on standardized tests. But when kids reported having more than 90 to 100 minutes of homework per day, scores declined ( Journal of Educational Psychology , 2015).

"At all grade levels, doing other things after school can have positive effects," Cooper says. "To the extent that homework denies access to other leisure and community activities, it's not serving the child's best interest."

Children of all ages need down time in order to thrive, says Denise Pope, PhD, a professor of education at Stanford University and a co-founder of Challenge Success, a program that partners with secondary schools to implement policies that improve students' academic engagement and well-being.

"Little kids and big kids need unstructured time for play each day," she says. Certainly, time for physical activity is important for kids' health and well-being. But even time spent on social media can help give busy kids' brains a break, she says.

All over the map

But are teachers sticking to the 10-minute rule? Studies attempting to quantify time spent on homework are all over the map, in part because of wide variations in methodology, Pope says.

A 2014 report by the Brookings Institution examined the question of homework, comparing data from a variety of sources. That report cited findings from a 2012 survey of first-year college students in which 38.4 percent reported spending six hours or more per week on homework during their last year of high school. That was down from 49.5 percent in 1986 ( The Brown Center Report on American Education , 2014).

The Brookings report also explored survey data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which asked 9-, 13- and 17-year-old students how much homework they'd done the previous night. They found that between 1984 and 2012, there was a slight increase in homework for 9-year-olds, but homework amounts for 13- and 17-year-olds stayed roughly the same, or even decreased slightly.

Yet other evidence suggests that some kids might be taking home much more work than they can handle. Robert Pressman, PhD, and colleagues recently investigated the 10-minute rule among more than 1,100 students, and found that elementary-school kids were receiving up to three times as much homework as recommended. As homework load increased, so did family stress, the researchers found ( American Journal of Family Therapy , 2015).

Many high school students also seem to be exceeding the recommended amounts of homework. Pope and Galloway recently surveyed more than 4,300 students from 10 high-achieving high schools. Students reported bringing home an average of just over three hours of homework nightly ( Journal of Experiential Education , 2013).

On the positive side, students who spent more time on homework in that study did report being more behaviorally engaged in school — for instance, giving more effort and paying more attention in class, Galloway says. But they were not more invested in the homework itself. They also reported greater academic stress and less time to balance family, friends and extracurricular activities. They experienced more physical health problems as well, such as headaches, stomach troubles and sleep deprivation. "Three hours per night is too much," Galloway says.

In the high-achieving schools Pope and Galloway studied, more than 90 percent of the students go on to college. There's often intense pressure to succeed academically, from both parents and peers. On top of that, kids in these communities are often overloaded with extracurricular activities, including sports and clubs. "They're very busy," Pope says. "Some kids have up to 40 hours a week — a full-time job's worth — of extracurricular activities." And homework is yet one more commitment on top of all the others.

"Homework has perennially acted as a source of stress for students, so that piece of it is not new," Galloway says. "But especially in upper-middle-class communities, where the focus is on getting ahead, I think the pressure on students has been ratcheted up."

Yet homework can be a problem at the other end of the socioeconomic spectrum as well. Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, Internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs, says Lea Theodore, PhD, a professor of school psychology at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. They are less likely to have computers or a quiet place to do homework in peace.

"Homework can highlight those inequities," she says.

Quantity vs. quality

One point researchers agree on is that for all students, homework quality matters. But too many kids are feeling a lack of engagement with their take-home assignments, many experts say. In Pope and Galloway's research, only 20 percent to 30 percent of students said they felt their homework was useful or meaningful.

"Students are assigned a lot of busywork. They're naming it as a primary stressor, but they don't feel it's supporting their learning," Galloway says.

"Homework that's busywork is not good for anyone," Cooper agrees. Still, he says, different subjects call for different kinds of assignments. "Things like vocabulary and spelling are learned through practice. Other kinds of courses require more integration of material and drawing on different skills."

But critics say those skills can be developed with many fewer hours of homework each week. Why assign 50 math problems, Pope asks, when 10 would be just as constructive? One Advanced Placement biology teacher she worked with through Challenge Success experimented with cutting his homework assignments by a third, and then by half. "Test scores didn't go down," she says. "You can have a rigorous course and not have a crazy homework load."

Still, changing the culture of homework won't be easy. Teachers-to-be get little instruction in homework during their training, Pope says. And despite some vocal parents arguing that kids bring home too much homework, many others get nervous if they think their child doesn't have enough. "Teachers feel pressured to give homework because parents expect it to come home," says Galloway. "When it doesn't, there's this idea that the school might not be doing its job."

Galloway argues teachers and school administrators need to set clear goals when it comes to homework — and parents and students should be in on the discussion, too. "It should be a broader conversation within the community, asking what's the purpose of homework? Why are we giving it? Who is it serving? Who is it not serving?"

Until schools and communities agree to take a hard look at those questions, those backpacks full of take-home assignments will probably keep stirring up more feelings than facts.

Further reading

• Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 1–62. doi: 10.3102/00346543076001001
• Galloway, M., Connor, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81 (4), 490–510. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2012.745469
• Pope, D., Brown, M., & Miles, S. (2015). Overloaded and underprepared: Strategies for stronger schools and healthy, successful kids . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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The Cult of Homework

America’s devotion to the practice stems in part from the fact that it’s what today’s parents and teachers grew up with themselves.

America has long had a fickle relationship with homework. A century or so ago, progressive reformers argued that it made kids unduly stressed , which later led in some cases to district-level bans on it for all grades under seventh. This anti-homework sentiment faded, though, amid mid-century fears that the U.S. was falling behind the Soviet Union (which led to more homework), only to resurface in the 1960s and ’70s, when a more open culture came to see homework as stifling play and creativity (which led to less). But this didn’t last either: In the ’80s, government researchers blamed America’s schools for its economic troubles and recommended ramping homework up once more.

The 21st century has so far been a homework-heavy era, with American teenagers now averaging about twice as much time spent on homework each day as their predecessors did in the 1990s . Even little kids are asked to bring school home with them. A 2015 study , for instance, found that kindergarteners, who researchers tend to agree shouldn’t have any take-home work, were spending about 25 minutes a night on it.

But not without pushback. As many children, not to mention their parents and teachers, are drained by their daily workload, some schools and districts are rethinking how homework should work—and some teachers are doing away with it entirely. They’re reviewing the research on homework (which, it should be noted, is contested) and concluding that it’s time to revisit the subject.

Read: My daughter’s homework is killing me

Hillsborough, California, an affluent suburb of San Francisco, is one district that has changed its ways. The district, which includes three elementary schools and a middle school, worked with teachers and convened panels of parents in order to come up with a homework policy that would allow students more unscheduled time to spend with their families or to play. In August 2017, it rolled out an updated policy, which emphasized that homework should be “meaningful” and banned due dates that fell on the day after a weekend or a break.

“The first year was a bit bumpy,” says Louann Carlomagno, the district’s superintendent. She says the adjustment was at times hard for the teachers, some of whom had been doing their job in a similar fashion for a quarter of a century. Parents’ expectations were also an issue. Carlomagno says they took some time to “realize that it was okay not to have an hour of homework for a second grader—that was new.”

Most of the way through year two, though, the policy appears to be working more smoothly. “The students do seem to be less stressed based on conversations I’ve had with parents,” Carlomagno says. It also helps that the students performed just as well on the state standardized test last year as they have in the past.

Earlier this year, the district of Somerville, Massachusetts, also rewrote its homework policy, reducing the amount of homework its elementary and middle schoolers may receive. In grades six through eight, for example, homework is capped at an hour a night and can only be assigned two to three nights a week.

Jack Schneider, an education professor at the University of Massachusetts at Lowell whose daughter attends school in Somerville, is generally pleased with the new policy. But, he says, it’s part of a bigger, worrisome pattern. “The origin for this was general parental dissatisfaction, which not surprisingly was coming from a particular demographic,” Schneider says. “Middle-class white parents tend to be more vocal about concerns about homework … They feel entitled enough to voice their opinions.”

Schneider is all for revisiting taken-for-granted practices like homework, but thinks districts need to take care to be inclusive in that process. “I hear approximately zero middle-class white parents talking about how homework done best in grades K through two actually strengthens the connection between home and school for young people and their families,” he says. Because many of these parents already feel connected to their school community, this benefit of homework can seem redundant. “They don’t need it,” Schneider says, “so they’re not advocating for it.”

That doesn’t mean, necessarily, that homework is more vital in low-income districts. In fact, there are different, but just as compelling, reasons it can be burdensome in these communities as well. Allison Wienhold, who teaches high-school Spanish in the small town of Dunkerton, Iowa, has phased out homework assignments over the past three years. Her thinking: Some of her students, she says, have little time for homework because they’re working 30 hours a week or responsible for looking after younger siblings.

As educators reduce or eliminate the homework they assign, it’s worth asking what amount and what kind of homework is best for students. It turns out that there’s some disagreement about this among researchers, who tend to fall in one of two camps.

In the first camp is Harris Cooper, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University. Cooper conducted a review of the existing research on homework in the mid-2000s , and found that, up to a point, the amount of homework students reported doing correlates with their performance on in-class tests. This correlation, the review found, was stronger for older students than for younger ones.

This conclusion is generally accepted among educators, in part because it’s compatible with “the 10-minute rule,” a rule of thumb popular among teachers suggesting that the proper amount of homework is approximately 10 minutes per night, per grade level—that is, 10 minutes a night for first graders, 20 minutes a night for second graders, and so on, up to two hours a night for high schoolers.

In Cooper’s eyes, homework isn’t overly burdensome for the typical American kid. He points to a 2014 Brookings Institution report that found “little evidence that the homework load has increased for the average student”; onerous amounts of homework, it determined, are indeed out there, but relatively rare. Moreover, the report noted that most parents think their children get the right amount of homework, and that parents who are worried about under-assigning outnumber those who are worried about over-assigning. Cooper says that those latter worries tend to come from a small number of communities with “concerns about being competitive for the most selective colleges and universities.”

According to Alfie Kohn, squarely in camp two, most of the conclusions listed in the previous three paragraphs are questionable. Kohn, the author of The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing , considers homework to be a “reliable extinguisher of curiosity,” and has several complaints with the evidence that Cooper and others cite in favor of it. Kohn notes, among other things, that Cooper’s 2006 meta-analysis doesn’t establish causation, and that its central correlation is based on children’s (potentially unreliable) self-reporting of how much time they spend doing homework. (Kohn’s prolific writing on the subject alleges numerous other methodological faults.)

In fact, other correlations make a compelling case that homework doesn’t help. Some countries whose students regularly outperform American kids on standardized tests, such as Japan and Denmark, send their kids home with less schoolwork , while students from some countries with higher homework loads than the U.S., such as Thailand and Greece, fare worse on tests. (Of course, international comparisons can be fraught because so many factors, in education systems and in societies at large, might shape students’ success.)

Kohn also takes issue with the way achievement is commonly assessed. “If all you want is to cram kids’ heads with facts for tomorrow’s tests that they’re going to forget by next week, yeah, if you give them more time and make them do the cramming at night, that could raise the scores,” he says. “But if you’re interested in kids who know how to think or enjoy learning, then homework isn’t merely ineffective, but counterproductive.”

His concern is, in a way, a philosophical one. “The practice of homework assumes that only academic growth matters, to the point that having kids work on that most of the school day isn’t enough,” Kohn says. What about homework’s effect on quality time spent with family? On long-term information retention? On critical-thinking skills? On social development? On success later in life? On happiness? The research is quiet on these questions.

Another problem is that research tends to focus on homework’s quantity rather than its quality, because the former is much easier to measure than the latter. While experts generally agree that the substance of an assignment matters greatly (and that a lot of homework is uninspiring busywork), there isn’t a catchall rule for what’s best—the answer is often specific to a certain curriculum or even an individual student.

Given that homework’s benefits are so narrowly defined (and even then, contested), it’s a bit surprising that assigning so much of it is often a classroom default, and that more isn’t done to make the homework that is assigned more enriching. A number of things are preserving this state of affairs—things that have little to do with whether homework helps students learn.

Jack Schneider, the Massachusetts parent and professor, thinks it’s important to consider the generational inertia of the practice. “The vast majority of parents of public-school students themselves are graduates of the public education system,” he says. “Therefore, their views of what is legitimate have been shaped already by the system that they would ostensibly be critiquing.” In other words, many parents’ own history with homework might lead them to expect the same for their children, and anything less is often taken as an indicator that a school or a teacher isn’t rigorous enough. (This dovetails with—and complicates—the finding that most parents think their children have the right amount of homework.)

Barbara Stengel, an education professor at Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College, brought up two developments in the educational system that might be keeping homework rote and unexciting. The first is the importance placed in the past few decades on standardized testing, which looms over many public-school classroom decisions and frequently discourages teachers from trying out more creative homework assignments. “They could do it, but they’re afraid to do it, because they’re getting pressure every day about test scores,” Stengel says.

Second, she notes that the profession of teaching, with its relatively low wages and lack of autonomy, struggles to attract and support some of the people who might reimagine homework, as well as other aspects of education. “Part of why we get less interesting homework is because some of the people who would really have pushed the limits of that are no longer in teaching,” she says.

“In general, we have no imagination when it comes to homework,” Stengel says. She wishes teachers had the time and resources to remake homework into something that actually engages students. “If we had kids reading—anything, the sports page, anything that they’re able to read—that’s the best single thing. If we had kids going to the zoo, if we had kids going to parks after school, if we had them doing all of those things, their test scores would improve. But they’re not. They’re going home and doing homework that is not expanding what they think about.”

“Exploratory” is one word Mike Simpson used when describing the types of homework he’d like his students to undertake. Simpson is the head of the Stone Independent School, a tiny private high school in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, that opened in 2017. “We were lucky to start a school a year and a half ago,” Simpson says, “so it’s been easy to say we aren’t going to assign worksheets, we aren’t going assign regurgitative problem sets.” For instance, a half-dozen students recently built a 25-foot trebuchet on campus.

Simpson says he thinks it’s a shame that the things students have to do at home are often the least fulfilling parts of schooling: “When our students can’t make the connection between the work they’re doing at 11 o’clock at night on a Tuesday to the way they want their lives to be, I think we begin to lose the plot.”

When I talked with other teachers who did homework makeovers in their classrooms, I heard few regrets. Brandy Young, a second-grade teacher in Joshua, Texas, stopped assigning take-home packets of worksheets three years ago, and instead started asking her students to do 20 minutes of pleasure reading a night. She says she’s pleased with the results, but she’s noticed something funny. “Some kids,” she says, “really do like homework.” She’s started putting out a bucket of it for students to draw from voluntarily—whether because they want an additional challenge or something to pass the time at home.

Chris Bronke, a high-school English teacher in the Chicago suburb of Downers Grove, told me something similar. This school year, he eliminated homework for his class of freshmen, and now mostly lets students study on their own or in small groups during class time. It’s usually up to them what they work on each day, and Bronke has been impressed by how they’ve managed their time.

In fact, some of them willingly spend time on assignments at home, whether because they’re particularly engaged, because they prefer to do some deeper thinking outside school, or because they needed to spend time in class that day preparing for, say, a biology test the following period. “They’re making meaningful decisions about their time that I don’t think education really ever gives students the experience, nor the practice, of doing,” Bronke said.

The typical prescription offered by those overwhelmed with homework is to assign less of it—to subtract. But perhaps a more useful approach, for many classrooms, would be to create homework only when teachers and students believe it’s actually needed to further the learning that takes place in class—to start with nothing, and add as necessary.

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Research Trends: Why Homework Should Be Balanced

Research suggests that while homework can be an effective learning tool, assigning too much can lower student performance and interfere with other important activities.

Homework: effective learning tool or waste of time?

Since the average high school student spends almost seven hours each week doing homework, it’s surprising that there’s no clear answer. Homework is generally recognized as an effective way to reinforce what students learn in class, but claims that it may cause more harm than good, especially for younger students, are common.

Here’s what the research says:

• In general, homework has substantial benefits at the high school level, with decreased benefits for middle school students and few benefits for elementary students (Cooper, 1989; Cooper et al., 2006).
• While assigning homework may have academic benefits, it can also cut into important personal and family time (Cooper et al., 2006).
• Assigning too much homework can result in poor performance (Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015).
• A student’s ability to complete homework may depend on factors that are outside their control (Cooper et al., 2006; OECD, 2014; Eren & Henderson, 2011).
• The goal shouldn’t be to eliminate homework, but to make it authentic, meaningful, and engaging (Darling-Hammond & Ifill-Lynch, 2006).

Why Homework Should Be Balanced

Homework can boost learning, but doing too much can be detrimental. The National PTA and National Education Association support the “10-minute homework rule,” which recommends 10 minutes of homework per grade level, per night (10 minutes for first grade, 20 minutes for second grade, and so on, up to two hours for 12th grade) (Cooper, 2010). A recent study found that when middle school students were assigned more than 90–100 minutes of homework per day, their math and science scores began to decline (Fernández-Alonso, Suárez-Álvarez, & Muñiz, 2015). Giving students too much homework can lead to fatigue, stress, and a loss of interest in academics—something that we all want to avoid.

Homework Pros and Cons

Homework has many benefits, ranging from higher academic performance to improved study skills and stronger school-parent connections. However, it can also result in a loss of interest in academics, fatigue, and a loss of important personal and family time.

Grade Level Makes a Difference

Although the debate about homework generally falls in the “it works” vs. “it doesn’t work” camps, research shows that grade level makes a difference. High school students generally get the biggest benefits from homework, with middle school students getting about half the benefits, and elementary school students getting few benefits (Cooper et al., 2006). Since young students are still developing study habits like concentration and self-regulation, assigning a lot of homework isn’t all that helpful.

Parents Should Be Supportive, Not Intrusive

Well-designed homework not only strengthens student learning, it also provides ways to create connections between a student’s family and school. Homework offers parents insight into what their children are learning, provides opportunities to talk with children about their learning, and helps create conversations with school communities about ways to support student learning (Walker et al., 2004).

However, parent involvement can also hurt student learning. Patall, Cooper, and Robinson (2008) found that students did worse when their parents were perceived as intrusive or controlling. Motivation plays a key role in learning, and parents can cause unintentional harm by not giving their children enough space and autonomy to do their homework.

Homework Across the Globe

OECD , the developers of the international PISA test, published a 2014 report looking at homework around the world. They found that 15-year-olds worldwide spend an average of five hours per week doing homework (the U.S. average is about six hours). Surprisingly, countries like Finland and Singapore spend less time on homework (two to three hours per week) but still have high PISA rankings. These countries, the report explains, have support systems in place that allow students to rely less on homework to succeed. If a country like the U.S. were to decrease the amount of homework assigned to high school students, test scores would likely decrease unless additional supports were added.

Homework Is About Quality, Not Quantity

Whether you’re pro- or anti-homework, keep in mind that research gives a big-picture idea of what works and what doesn’t, and a capable teacher can make almost anything work. The question isn’t  homework vs. no homework ; instead, we should be asking ourselves, “How can we transform homework so that it’s engaging and relevant and supports learning?”

Cooper, H. (1989). Synthesis of research on homework . Educational leadership, 47 (3), 85-91.

Cooper, H. (2010). Homework’s Diminishing Returns . The New York Times .

Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987–2003 . Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 1-62.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Ifill-Lynch, O. (2006). If They'd Only Do Their Work! Educational Leadership, 63 (5), 8-13.

Eren, O., & Henderson, D. J. (2011). Are we wasting our children's time by giving them more homework? Economics of Education Review, 30 (5), 950-961.

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., & Muñiz, J. (2015, March 16). Adolescents’ Homework Performance in Mathematics and Science: Personal Factors and Teaching Practices . Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication.

OECD (2014). Does Homework Perpetuate Inequities in Education? PISA in Focus , No. 46, OECD Publishing, Paris.

Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). Parent involvement in homework: A research synthesis . Review of Educational Research, 78 (4), 1039-1101.

Van Voorhis, F. L. (2003). Interactive homework in middle school: Effects on family involvement and science achievement . The Journal of Educational Research, 96 (6), 323-338.

Walker, J. M., Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Whetsel, D. R., & Green, C. L. (2004). Parental involvement in homework: A review of current research and its implications for teachers, after school program staff, and parent leaders . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project.

Time Spent on Homework and Academic Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study Related to Results of TIMSS

[el tiempo dedicado a la tarea y al rendimiento académico: un estudio metaanalítico relacionado con los resultados de timss], gulnar ozyildirim akdeniz university, konyaalti, antalya, turkey, https://doi.org/10.5093/psed2021a30.

Received 31 August 2020, Accepted 24 May 2021

Homework is a common instructional technique that requires extra time, energy, and effort apart from school time. Is homework worth these investments? The study aimed to investigate whether the amount of time spent on homework had any effect on academic achievement and to determine moderators in the relationship between these two terms by using TIMSS data through the meta-analysis method. In this meta-analysis study, data obtained from 488 independent findings from 74 countries in the seven surveys of TIMSS and a sample of 429,970 students was included. The coefficient of standardized means, based on the random effect model, was used to measure the mean effect size and the Q statistic was used to determine the significance of moderator variables. This study revealed that the students spending their time on homework at medium level had effect on their academic achievement and there were some significant moderators in this relationship.

La tarea es una técnica instructiva común que requiere tiempo extra, energía y esfuerzo aparte del horario escolar. ¿Vale la pena hacer estas inversiones? El objetivo del estudio era investigar si el tiempo dedicado a la tarea tenía algún efecto en el rendimiento académico y determinar los moderadores de la relación entre estos dos términos mediante el uso de datos TIMSS a través del método de metaanálisis. En este estudio de metaanálisis se incluyeron los datos obtenidos de 488 hallazgos independientes de 74 países en las siete encuestas de TIMSS y una muestra de 429,970 estudiantes. Se utilizó el coeficiente de medias estandarizadas, basado en el modelo de efecto aleatorio, para medir el tamaño medio del efecto y el estadístico Q para determinar la significación de las variables moderadoras. El estudio reveló el hecho de que los estudiantes que dedican su tiempo a la tarea en el nivel medio tiene efecto en su rendimiento académico y hubo algunos moderadores significativos de esta relación.

Palabras clave

Cite this article as: Ozyildirim, G. (2022). Time Spent on Homework and Academic Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study Related to Results of TIMSS. Psicología Educativa, 28 (1) , 13 - 21. https://doi.org/10.5093/psed2021a30

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Homework in America

• 2014 Brown Center Report on American Education

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Tom loveless tom loveless former brookings expert.

March 18, 2014

• 18 min read

Part II of the 2014 Brown Center Report on American Education

Homework!  The topic, no, just the word itself, sparks controversy.  It has for a long time. In 1900, Edward Bok, editor of the Ladies Home Journal , published an impassioned article, “A National Crime at the Feet of Parents,” accusing homework of destroying American youth.  Drawing on the theories of his fellow educational progressive, psychologist G. Stanley Hall (who has since been largely discredited), Bok argued that study at home interfered with children’s natural inclination towards play and free movement, threatened children’s physical and mental health, and usurped the right of parents to decide activities in the home.

The Journal was an influential magazine, especially with parents.  An anti-homework campaign burst forth that grew into a national crusade. [i]   School districts across the land passed restrictions on homework, culminating in a 1901 statewide prohibition of homework in California for any student under the age of 15.  The crusade would remain powerful through 1913, before a world war and other concerns bumped it from the spotlight.  Nevertheless, anti-homework sentiment would remain a touchstone of progressive education throughout the twentieth century.  As a political force, it would lie dormant for years before bubbling up to mobilize proponents of free play and “the whole child.” Advocates would, if educators did not comply, seek to impose homework restrictions through policy making.

Our own century dawned during a surge of anti-homework sentiment. From 1998 to 2003, Newsweek , TIME , and People , all major national publications at the time, ran cover stories on the evils of homework.  TIME ’s 1999 story had the most provocative title, “The Homework Ate My Family: Kids Are Dazed, Parents Are Stressed, Why Piling On Is Hurting Students.” People ’s 2003 article offered a call to arms: “Overbooked: Four Hours of Homework for a Third Grader? Exhausted Kids (and Parents) Fight Back.” Feature stories about students laboring under an onerous homework burden ran in newspapers from coast to coast. Photos of angst ridden children became a journalistic staple.

The 2003 Brown Center Report on American Education included a study investigating the homework controversy.  Examining the most reliable empirical evidence at the time, the study concluded that the dramatic claims about homework were unfounded.  An overwhelming majority of students, at least two-thirds, depending on age, had an hour or less of homework each night.  Surprisingly, even the homework burden of college-bound high school seniors was discovered to be rather light, less than an hour per night or six hours per week. Public opinion polls also contradicted the prevailing story.  Parents were not up in arms about homework.  Most said their children’s homework load was about right.  Parents wanting more homework out-numbered those who wanted less.

Now homework is in the news again.  Several popular anti-homework books fill store shelves (whether virtual or brick and mortar). [ii]   The documentary Race to Nowhere depicts homework as one aspect of an overwrought, pressure-cooker school system that constantly pushes students to perform and destroys their love of learning.  The film’s website claims over 6,000 screenings in more than 30 countries.  In 2011, the New York Times ran a front page article about the homework restrictions adopted by schools in Galloway, NJ, describing “a wave of districts across the nation trying to remake homework amid concerns that high stakes testing and competition for college have fueled a nightly grind that is stressing out children and depriving them of play and rest, yet doing little to raise achievement, especially in elementary grades.”   In the article, Vicki Abeles, the director of Race to Nowhere , invokes the indictment of homework lodged a century ago, declaring, “The presence of homework is negatively affecting the health of our young people and the quality of family time.” [iii] 

A petition for the National PTA to adopt “healthy homework guidelines” on change.org currently has 19,000 signatures.  In September 2013, Atlantic featured an article, “My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me,” by a Manhattan writer who joined his middle school daughter in doing her homework for a week.  Most nights the homework took more than three hours to complete.

The Current Study

A decade has passed since the last Brown Center Report study of homework, and it’s time for an update.  How much homework do American students have today?  Has the homework burden increased, gone down, or remained about the same?  What do parents think about the homework load?

A word on why such a study is important.  It’s not because the popular press is creating a fiction.  The press accounts are built on the testimony of real students and real parents, people who are very unhappy with the amount of homework coming home from school.  These unhappy people are real—but they also may be atypical.  Their experiences, as dramatic as they are, may not represent the common experience of American households with school-age children.  In the analysis below, data are analyzed from surveys that are methodologically designed to produce reliable information about the experiences of all Americans.  Some of the surveys have existed long enough to illustrate meaningful trends.  The question is whether strong empirical evidence confirms the anecdotes about overworked kids and outraged parents.

Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) provide a good look at trends in homework for nearly the past three decades.  Table 2-1 displays NAEP data from 1984-2012.  The data are from the long-term trend NAEP assessment’s student questionnaire, a survey of homework practices featuring both consistently-worded questions and stable response categories.  The question asks: “How much time did you spend on homework yesterday?”  Responses are shown for NAEP’s three age groups: 9, 13, and 17. [iv]

Today’s youngest students seem to have more homework than in the past.  The first three rows of data for age 9 reveal a shift away from students having no homework, declining from 35% in 1984 to 22% in 2012.  A slight uptick occurred from the low of 18% in 2008, however, so the trend may be abating.  The decline of the “no homework” group is matched by growth in the percentage of students with less than an hour’s worth, from 41% in 1984 to 57% in 2012. The share of students with one to two hours of homework changed very little over the entire 28 years, comprising 12% of students in 2012.  The group with the heaviest load, more than two hours of homework, registered at 5% in 2012.  It was 6% in 1984.

The amount of homework for 13-year-olds appears to have lightened slightly. Students with one to two hours of homework declined from 29% to 23%.  The next category down (in terms of homework load), students with less than an hour, increased from 36% to 44%.  One can see, by combining the bottom two rows, that students with an hour or more of homework declined steadily from 1984 to 2008 (falling from 38% to 27%) and then ticked up to 30% in 2012.  The proportion of students with the heaviest load, more than two hours, slipped from 9% in 1984 to 7% in 2012 and ranged between 7-10% for the entire period.

For 17-year-olds, the homework burden has not varied much.  The percentage of students with no homework has increased from 22% to 27%.  Most of that gain occurred in the 1990s. Also note that the percentage of 17-year-olds who had homework but did not do it was 11% in 2012, the highest for the three NAEP age groups.  Adding that number in with the students who didn’t have homework in the first place means that more than one-third of seventeen year olds (38%) did no homework on the night in question in 2012.  That compares with 33% in 1984.  The segment of the 17-year-old population with more than two hours of homework, from which legitimate complaints of being overworked might arise, has been stuck in the 10%-13% range.

The NAEP data point to four main conclusions:

• With one exception, the homework load has remained remarkably stable since 1984.
• The exception is nine-year-olds.  They have experienced an increase in homework, primarily because many students who once did not have any now have some.  The percentage of nine-year-olds with no homework fell by 13 percentage points, and the percentage with less than an hour grew by 16 percentage points.
• Of the three age groups, 17-year-olds have the most bifurcated distribution of the homework burden.   They have the largest percentage of kids with no homework (especially when the homework shirkers are added in) and the largest percentage with more than two hours.
• NAEP data do not support the idea that a large and growing number of students have an onerous amount of homework.  For all three age groups, only a small percentage of students report more than two hours of homework.  For 1984-2012, the size of the two hours or more groups ranged from 5-6% for age 9, 6-10% for age 13, and 10-13% for age 17.

Note that the item asks students how much time they spent on homework “yesterday.”  That phrasing has the benefit of immediacy, asking for an estimate of precise, recent behavior rather than an estimate of general behavior for an extended, unspecified period.  But misleading responses could be generated if teachers lighten the homework of NAEP participants on the night before the NAEP test is given.  That’s possible. [v] Such skewing would not affect trends if it stayed about the same over time and in the same direction (teachers assigning less homework than usual on the day before NAEP).  Put another way, it would affect estimates of the amount of homework at any single point in time but not changes in the amount of homework between two points in time.

A check for possible skewing is to compare the responses above with those to another homework question on the NAEP questionnaire from 1986-2004 but no longer in use. [vi]   It asked students, “How much time do you usually spend on homework each day?” Most of the response categories have different boundaries from the “last night” question, making the data incomparable.  But the categories asking about no homework are comparable.  Responses indicating no homework on the “usual” question in 2004 were: 2% for age 9-year-olds, 5% for 13 year olds, and 12% for 17-year-olds.  These figures are much less than the ones reported in Table 2-1 above.  The “yesterday” data appear to overstate the proportion of students typically receiving no homework.

The story is different for the “heavy homework load” response categories.  The “usual” question reported similar percentages as the “yesterday” question.  The categories representing the most amount of homework were “more than one hour” for age 9 and “more than two hours” for ages 13 and 17.   In 2004, 12% of 9-year-olds said they had more than one hour of daily homework, while 8% of 13-year-olds and 12% of 17-year-olds said they had more than two hours.  For all three age groups, those figures declined from1986 to 2004. The decline for age 17 was quite large, falling from 17% in 1986 to 12% in 2004.  

The bottom line: regardless of how the question is posed, NAEP data do not support the view that the homework burden is growing, nor do they support the belief that the proportion of students with a lot of homework has increased in recent years.  The proportion of students with no homework is probably under-reported on the long-term trend NAEP.  But the upper bound of students with more than two hours of daily homework appears to be about 15%–and that is for students in their final years of high school.

College Freshmen Look Back  

There is another good source of information on high school students’ homework over several decades.  The Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA conducts an annual survey of college freshmen that began in 1966.  In 1986, the survey started asking a series of questions regarding how students spent time in the final year of high school.  Figure 2-1 shows the 2012 percentages for the dominant activities.  More than half of college freshmen say they spent at least six hours per week socializing with friends (66.2%) and exercising/sports (53.0%).  About 40% devoted that much weekly time to paid employment.

Homework comes in fourth pace. Only 38.4% of students said they spent at least six hours per week studying or doing homework. When these students were high school seniors, it was not an activity central to their out of school lives.  That is quite surprising.  Think about it.  The survey is confined to the nation’s best students, those attending college.  Gone are high school dropouts.  Also not included are students who go into the military or attain full time employment immediately after high school.  And yet only a little more than one-third of the sampled students, devoted more than six hours per week to homework and studying when they were on the verge of attending college.

Another notable finding from the UCLA survey is how the statistic is trending (see Figure 2-2).  In 1986, 49.5% reported spending six or more hours per week studying and doing homework.  By 2002, the proportion had dropped to 33.4%.  In 2012, as noted in Figure 2-1, the statistic had bounced off the historical lows to reach 38.4%.  It is slowly rising but still sits sharply below where it was in 1987.

What Do Parents Think?

Met Life has published an annual survey of teachers since 1984.  In 1987 and 2007, the survey included questions focusing on homework and expanded to sample both parents and students on the topic. Data are broken out for secondary and elementary parents and for students in grades 3-6 and grades 7-12 (the latter not being an exact match with secondary parents because of K-8 schools).

Table 2-2 shows estimates of homework from the 2007 survey.  Respondents were asked to estimate the amount of homework on a typical school day (Monday-Friday).  The median estimate of each group of respondents is shaded.  As displayed in the first column, the median estimate for parents of an elementary student is that their child devotes about 30 minutes to homework on the typical weekday.  Slightly more than half (52%) estimate 30 minutes or less; 48% estimate 45 minutes or more.  Students in grades 3-6 (third column) give a median estimate that is a bit higher than their parents’ (45 minutes), with almost two-thirds (63%) saying 45 minutes or less is the typical weekday homework load.

One hour of homework is the median estimate for both secondary parents and students in grade 7-12, with 55% of parents reporting an hour or less and about two-thirds (67%) of students reporting the same.  As for the prevalence of the heaviest homework loads, 11% of secondary parents say their children spend more than two hours on weekday homework, and 12% is the corresponding figure for students in grades 7-12.

The Met Life surveys in 1987 and 2007 asked parents to evaluate the amount and quality of homework.  Table 2-3 displays the results.  There was little change over the two decades separating the two surveys.  More than 60% of parents rate the amount of homework as good or excellent, and about two-thirds give such high ratings to the quality of the homework their children are receiving.  The proportion giving poor ratings to either the quantity or quality of homework did not exceed 10% on either survey.

Parental dissatisfaction with homework comes in two forms: those who feel schools give too much homework and those who feel schools do not give enough.  The current wave of journalism about unhappy parents is dominated by those who feel schools give too much homework.  How big is this group?  Not very big (see Figure 2-3). On the Met Life survey, 60% of parents felt schools were giving the right amount of homework, 25% wanted more homework, and only 15% wanted less.

National surveys on homework are infrequent, but the 2006-2007 period had more than one.  A poll conducted by Public Agenda in 2006 reported similar numbers as the Met Life survey: 68% of parents describing the homework load as “about right,” 20% saying there is “too little homework,” and 11% saying there is “too much homework.”  A 2006 AP-AOL poll found the highest percentage of parents reporting too much homework, 19%.  But even in that poll, they were outnumbered by parents believing there is too little homework (23%), and a clear majority (57%) described the load as “about right.”  A 2010 local survey of Chicago parents conducted by the Chicago Tribune reported figures similar to those reported above: approximately two-thirds of parents saying their children’s homework load is “about right,” 21% saying it’s not enough, and 12% responding that the homework load is too much.

Summary and Discussion

In recent years, the press has been filled with reports of kids over-burdened with homework and parents rebelling against their children’s oppressive workload. The data assembled above call into question whether that portrait is accurate for the typical American family.  Homework typically takes an hour per night.  The homework burden of students rarely exceeds two hours a night.  The upper limit of students with two or more hours per night is about 15% nationally—and that is for juniors or seniors in high school.  For younger children, the upper boundary is about 10% who have such a heavy load.  Polls show that parents who want less homework range from 10%-20%, and that they are outnumbered—in every national poll on the homework question—by parents who want more homework, not less.  The majority of parents describe their children’s homework burden as about right.

So what’s going on?  Where are the homework horror stories coming from?

The Met Life survey of parents is able to give a few hints, mainly because of several questions that extend beyond homework to other aspects of schooling.  The belief that homework is burdensome is more likely held by parents with a larger set of complaints and concerns.  They are alienated from their child’s school.  About two in five parents (19%) don’t believe homework is important.  Compared to other parents, these parents are more likely to say too much homework is assigned (39% vs. 9%), that what is assigned is just busywork (57% vs. 36%), and that homework gets in the way of their family spending time together (51% vs. 15%).  They are less likely to rate the quality of homework as excellent (3% vs. 23%) or to rate the availability and responsiveness of teachers as excellent (18% vs. 38%). [vii]

They can also convince themselves that their numbers are larger than they really are.  Karl Taro Greenfeld, the author of the Atlantic article mentioned above, seems to fit that description.  “Every parent I know in New York City comments on how much homework their children have,” Mr. Greenfeld writes.  As for those parents who do not share this view? “There is always a clique of parents who are happy with the amount of homework. In fact, they would prefer more .  I tend not to get along with that type of parent.” [viii] 

Mr. Greenfeld’s daughter attends a selective exam school in Manhattan, known for its rigorous expectations and, yes, heavy homework load.  He had also complained about homework in his daughter’s previous school in Brentwood, CA.  That school was a charter school.  After Mr. Greenfeld emailed several parents expressing his complaints about homework in that school, the school’s vice-principal accused Mr. Greenfeld of cyberbullying.  The lesson here is that even schools of choice are not immune from complaints about homework.

The homework horror stories need to be read in a proper perspective.  They seem to originate from the very personal discontents of a small group of parents.  They do not reflect the experience of the average family with a school-age child.  That does not diminish these stories’ power to command the attention of school officials or even the public at large. But it also suggests a limited role for policy making in settling such disputes.  Policy is a blunt instrument.  Educators, parents, and kids are in the best position to resolve complaints about homework on a case by case basis.  Complaints about homework have existed for more than a century, and they show no signs of going away.

Part II Notes:

[i]Brian Gill and Steven Schlossman, “A Sin Against Childhood: Progressive Education and the Crusade to Abolish Homework, 1897-1941,” American Journal of Education , vol. 105, no. 1 (Nov., 1996), 27-66.  Also see Brian P. Gill and Steven L. Schlossman, “Villain or Savior? The American Discourse on Homework, 1850-2003,” Theory into Practice , 43, 3 (Summer 2004), pp. 174-181.

[ii] Bennett, Sara, and Nancy Kalish.  The Case Against Homework:  How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It   (New York:  Crown, 2006).  Buell, John.  Closing the Book on Homework: Enhancing Public Education and Freeing Family Time . (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004). Kohn, Alfie.    The Homework Myth:  Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing  (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006).  Kralovec, Etta, and John Buell.  The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts Families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning  (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).

[iii] Hu, Winnie, “ New Recruit in Homework Revolt: The Principal ,” New York Times , June 15, 2011, page a1.

[iv] Data for other years are available on the NAEP Data Explorer.  For Table 1, the starting point of 1984 was chosen because it is the first year all three ages were asked the homework question.  The two most recent dates (2012 and 2008) were chosen to show recent changes, and the two years in the 1990s to show developments during that decade.

[v] NAEP’s sampling design lessens the probability of skewing the homework figure.  Students are randomly drawn from a school population, meaning that an entire class is not tested.  Teachers would have to either single out NAEP students for special homework treatment or change their established homework routine for the whole class just to shelter NAEP participants from homework.  Sampling designs that draw entact classrooms for testing (such as TIMSS) would be more vulnerable to this effect.  Moreover, students in middle and high school usually have several different teachers during the day, meaning that prior knowledge of a particular student’s participation in NAEP would probably be limited to one or two teachers.

[vi] NAEP Question B003801 for 9 year olds and B003901 for 13- and 17-year olds.

[vii] Met Life, Met Life Survey of the American Teacher: The Homework Experience , November 13, 2007, pp. 21-22.

[viii] Greenfeld, Karl Taro, “ My Daughter’s Homework Is Killing Me ,” The Atlantic , September 18, 2013.

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Homework – Top 3 Pros and Cons

Pro/Con Arguments | Discussion Questions | Take Action | Sources | More Debates

From dioramas to book reports, from algebraic word problems to research projects, whether students should be given homework, as well as the type and amount of homework, has been debated for over a century. [ 1 ]

While we are unsure who invented homework, we do know that the word “homework” dates back to ancient Rome. Pliny the Younger asked his followers to practice their speeches at home. Memorization exercises as homework continued through the Middle Ages and Enlightenment by monks and other scholars. [ 45 ]

In the 19th century, German students of the Volksschulen or “People’s Schools” were given assignments to complete outside of the school day. This concept of homework quickly spread across Europe and was brought to the United States by Horace Mann , who encountered the idea in Prussia. [ 45 ]

In the early 1900s, progressive education theorists, championed by the magazine Ladies’ Home Journal , decried homework’s negative impact on children’s physical and mental health, leading California to ban homework for students under 15 from 1901 until 1917. In the 1930s, homework was portrayed as child labor, which was newly illegal, but the prevailing argument was that kids needed time to do household chores. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ]

Public opinion swayed again in favor of homework in the 1950s due to concerns about keeping up with the Soviet Union’s technological advances during the Cold War . And, in 1986, the US government included homework as an educational quality boosting tool. [ 3 ] [ 45 ]

A 2014 study found kindergarteners to fifth graders averaged 2.9 hours of homework per week, sixth to eighth graders 3.2 hours per teacher, and ninth to twelfth graders 3.5 hours per teacher. A 2014-2019 study found that teens spent about an hour a day on homework. [ 4 ] [ 44 ]

Beginning in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic complicated the very idea of homework as students were schooling remotely and many were doing all school work from home. Washington Post journalist Valerie Strauss asked, “Does homework work when kids are learning all day at home?” While students were mostly back in school buildings in fall 2021, the question remains of how effective homework is as an educational tool. [ 47 ]

Is Homework Beneficial?

Pro 1 Homework improves student achievement. Studies have shown that homework improved student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college. Research published in the High School Journal indicated that students who spent between 31 and 90 minutes each day on homework “scored about 40 points higher on the SAT-Mathematics subtest than their peers, who reported spending no time on homework each day, on average.” [ 6 ] Students in classes that were assigned homework outperformed 69% of students who didn’t have homework on both standardized tests and grades. A majority of studies on homework’s impact – 64% in one meta-study and 72% in another – showed that take-home assignments were effective at improving academic achievement. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Research by the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) concluded that increased homework led to better GPAs and higher probability of college attendance for high school boys. In fact, boys who attended college did more than three hours of additional homework per week in high school. [ 10 ] Read More

Pro 2 Homework helps to reinforce classroom learning, while developing good study habits and life skills. Students typically retain only 50% of the information teachers provide in class, and they need to apply that information in order to truly learn it. Abby Freireich and Brian Platzer, co-founders of Teachers Who Tutor NYC, explained, “at-home assignments help students learn the material taught in class. Students require independent practice to internalize new concepts… [And] these assignments can provide valuable data for teachers about how well students understand the curriculum.” [ 11 ] [ 49 ] Elementary school students who were taught “strategies to organize and complete homework,” such as prioritizing homework activities, collecting study materials, note-taking, and following directions, showed increased grades and more positive comments on report cards. [ 17 ] Research by the City University of New York noted that “students who engage in self-regulatory processes while completing homework,” such as goal-setting, time management, and remaining focused, “are generally more motivated and are higher achievers than those who do not use these processes.” [ 18 ] Homework also helps students develop key skills that they’ll use throughout their lives: accountability, autonomy, discipline, time management, self-direction, critical thinking, and independent problem-solving. Freireich and Platzer noted that “homework helps students acquire the skills needed to plan, organize, and complete their work.” [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 49 ] Read More

Pro 3 Homework allows parents to be involved with children’s learning. Thanks to take-home assignments, parents are able to track what their children are learning at school as well as their academic strengths and weaknesses. [ 12 ] Data from a nationwide sample of elementary school students show that parental involvement in homework can improve class performance, especially among economically disadvantaged African-American and Hispanic students. [ 20 ] Research from Johns Hopkins University found that an interactive homework process known as TIPS (Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork) improves student achievement: “Students in the TIPS group earned significantly higher report card grades after 18 weeks (1 TIPS assignment per week) than did non-TIPS students.” [ 21 ] Homework can also help clue parents in to the existence of any learning disabilities their children may have, allowing them to get help and adjust learning strategies as needed. Duke University Professor Harris Cooper noted, “Two parents once told me they refused to believe their child had a learning disability until homework revealed it to them.” [ 12 ] Read More

Con 1 Too much homework can be harmful. A poll of California high school students found that 59% thought they had too much homework. 82% of respondents said that they were “often or always stressed by schoolwork.” High-achieving high school students said too much homework leads to sleep deprivation and other health problems such as headaches, exhaustion, weight loss, and stomach problems. [ 24 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Alfie Kohn, an education and parenting expert, said, “Kids should have a chance to just be kids… it’s absurd to insist that children must be engaged in constructive activities right up until their heads hit the pillow.” [ 27 ] Emmy Kang, a mental health counselor, explained, “More than half of students say that homework is their primary source of stress, and we know what stress can do on our bodies.” [ 48 ] Excessive homework can also lead to cheating: 90% of middle school students and 67% of high school students admit to copying someone else’s homework, and 43% of college students engaged in “unauthorized collaboration” on out-of-class assignments. Even parents take shortcuts on homework: 43% of those surveyed admitted to having completed a child’s assignment for them. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Read More

Con 2 Homework exacerbates the digital divide or homework gap. Kiara Taylor, financial expert, defined the digital divide as “the gap between demographics and regions that have access to modern information and communications technology and those that don’t. Though the term now encompasses the technical and financial ability to utilize available technology—along with access (or a lack of access) to the Internet—the gap it refers to is constantly shifting with the development of technology.” For students, this is often called the homework gap. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] 30% (about 15 to 16 million) public school students either did not have an adequate internet connection or an appropriate device, or both, for distance learning. Completing homework for these students is more complicated (having to find a safe place with an internet connection, or borrowing a laptop, for example) or impossible. [ 51 ] A Hispanic Heritage Foundation study found that 96.5% of students across the country needed to use the internet for homework, and nearly half reported they were sometimes unable to complete their homework due to lack of access to the internet or a computer, which often resulted in lower grades. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] One study concluded that homework increases social inequality because it “potentially serves as a mechanism to further advantage those students who already experience some privilege in the school system while further disadvantaging those who may already be in a marginalized position.” [ 39 ] Read More

Con 3 Homework does not help younger students, and may not help high school students. We’ve known for a while that homework does not help elementary students. A 2006 study found that “homework had no association with achievement gains” when measured by standardized tests results or grades. [ 7 ] Fourth grade students who did no homework got roughly the same score on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) math exam as those who did 30 minutes of homework a night. Students who did 45 minutes or more of homework a night actually did worse. [ 41 ] Temple University professor Kathryn Hirsh-Pasek said that homework is not the most effective tool for young learners to apply new information: “They’re learning way more important skills when they’re not doing their homework.” [ 42 ] In fact, homework may not be helpful at the high school level either. Alfie Kohn, author of The Homework Myth, stated, “I interviewed high school teachers who completely stopped giving homework and there was no downside, it was all upside.” He explains, “just because the same kids who get more homework do a little better on tests, doesn’t mean the homework made that happen.” [ 52 ] Read More

Discussion Questions

1. Is homework beneficial? Consider the study data, your personal experience, and other types of information. Explain your answer(s).

2. If homework were banned, what other educational strategies would help students learn classroom material? Explain your answer(s).

3. How has homework been helpful to you personally? How has homework been unhelpful to you personally? Make carefully considered lists for both sides.

Take Action

1. Examine an argument in favor of quality homework assignments from Janine Bempechat.

2. Explore Oxford Learning’s infographic on the effects of homework on students.

3. Consider Joseph Lathan’s argument that homework promotes inequality .

4. Consider how you felt about the issue before reading this article. After reading the pros and cons on this topic, has your thinking changed? If so, how? List two to three ways. If your thoughts have not changed, list two to three ways your better understanding of the “other side of the issue” now helps you better argue your position.

5. Push for the position and policies you support by writing US national senators and representatives .

More School Debate Topics

Should K-12 Students Dissect Animals in Science Classrooms? – Proponents say dissecting real animals is a better learning experience. Opponents say the practice is bad for the environment.

Should Students Have to Wear School Uniforms? – Proponents say uniforms may increase student safety. Opponents say uniforms restrict expression.

Should Corporal Punishment Be Used in K-12 Schools? – Proponents say corporal punishment is an appropriate discipline. Opponents say it inflicts long-lasting physical and mental harm on students.

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• Published: 27 August 2024

Enhancing students’ attitudes towards statistics through innovative technology-enhanced, collaborative, and data-driven project-based learning

• Andreea Cujba 1 &
• Manoli Pifarré   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4271-4824 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1094 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Given the substantial body of educational research highlighting the significant influence of student attitudes on academic performance, particularly in disciplines like statistics where anxiety is prevalent, there is a need to investigate how innovative methodologies could reshape these attitudes. This paper will capitalize on the advancements from previously uncombined innovative methodologies of teaching statistics, such as project-based learning, data analytics, collaborative work, or the use of technology. Specifically, this paper reports on the design, implementation, and evaluation of innovative technology-enhanced, collaborative, and data-driven project-based learning, aiming to positively impact students’ attitudes towards statistics as a cornerstone to improve statistical knowledge. To achieve this, a quasi-experimental research study involving 174 secondary students was undertaken, with participants divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). Results indicate a notable positive shift in attitudes among EG students following the intervention. The EG students decreased their anxiety after the intervention and, increased their affect and positive attitude toward using technology for learning statistics. By contrast, the CG students do not show any positive effect on their attitudes. These findings underscore the potential of the innovative instructional design implemented in this project to not only foster practical statistical problem-solving skills but also cultivate positive attitudes crucial for statistical competence. Educational implications are discussed.

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Applying Q-methodology to investigate computer science teachers’ preferences about students’ skills and knowledge for obtaining a degree

Introduction.

In our increasingly digital world, technology generates vast quantities of data, and with the rise of artificial intelligence, this influx is set to skyrocket. To effectively harness and make sense of this data, citizens need to be equipped with robust data analytic skills. As evidence-based decision-making becomes increasingly imperative, advanced data analytic abilities will be indispensable. However, a significant challenge lies in the fact that many secondary students lack the positive attitudes necessary to engage with and learn data analytics skills and statistics (Garfield and Ben‐Zvi, 2007 ; Szczygieł and Pieronkiewicz, 2021 ).

Previous educational research has confirmed the role of developing positive attitudes to obtaining better results and meaningful learning of mathematics and statistics (e.g., Albelbisi and Yusop, 2018 ; Dowker et al., 2019 ; Muñoz et al., 2018 ; Silva and Sousa, 2020 ).

In the same vein, Emmioğlu and Capa-Aydin ( 2012 ) point out that positive attitudes towards statistics correlate positively with higher students’ results in statistics courses. Furthermore, several studies indicate that most students and adults do not statistically reason about important issues that affect their lives because they have not acquired the necessary skills (Domu et al., 2023 ; Garfield and Ben‐Zvi, 2007 ; Haddar et al., 2023 ; Özmen and Baki, 2021 ). Therefore, many students do not understand the usefulness or application of statistics in real and daily life and develop negative attitudes, e.g., anxiety, towards statistical content (Gal and Ginsburg, 1994 ; Williams, 2015 ). Rejection towards this subject is also accounted for by the widespread and well-known mathematical anxiety (Szczygieł and Pieronkiewicz, 2021 ) due to the student’s perception that statistics posits a great deal of mathematical content, without a real application and is difficult to understand (Gal and Ginsburg, 1994 ).

This paper capitalizes on the advancements from previously uncombined innovative methodologies of teaching statistics, such as project-based learning, data analytics, collaborative work, or the use of technology; and it designs an innovative instructional design to promote positive students’ attitudes towards statistics. Moreover, the paper reports on the implementation, and evaluation of technology-enhanced, collaborative, and data-driven project-based learning and its impact on students’ attitudes towards statistics via a quasi-experimental study. The paper contributes with an innovative pedagogy that combines and integrates the advancements of already testing teaching methods for engaging students in big data analysis, increasing their positive attitudes towards statistics, a cornerstone to improve students’ statistics skills and learning.

Literature review

Attitudes have been broadly defined as not directly observable, inferred aspects consisting of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural predispositions towards the object to which they are directed (Nolan et al., 2012 ). Although the attitude definition is not consistent in the literature, in accordance with the most frequent definitions in research, an attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour (Savelsbergh et al., 2016 ). Hence, this psychological tendency is shaped through experience and determines future behaviours. In this line of argument, an attitude can be seen as a personal characteristic that has an influence on subject’s behaviour (Di Martino and Zan, 2015 ).

In the context of learning, attitudes towards mathematics, and statistics in particular, are profound feelings and emotional reactions shaped by students’ experience in solving statistics tasks and throughout time (Tuohilampi, 2016 ). In other words, attitudes toward statistics can be seen as students’ expectations towards this subject, and according to them, the student will have one reaction or another in statistics class (Batanero and Díaz, 2011 ). Math anxiety is the sensation of concern and worry felt when thinking about mathematics or while doing a mathematics task (Abín et al., 2020 ).

Educational research claims that positive attitudes towards mathematics and statistics can be promoted by implementing innovative teaching methods that include, among others, the following five educational variables: (a) student-centred learning; (b) project-based learning and solving real problems or challenges familiar to students; (c) data analytics (henceforth DA) skills; (d) collaborative learning and e) use of interactive technologies (Chew and Dillon, 2014 ; Savelsbergh et al., 2016 ).

In this line of argument, recently, the growth in the everyday use of digital technologies is creating vast reservoirs of data. These data have huge but largely untapped potential. The economic sector has already considered the necessity to understand the “big data” generated in each sector and turn it into insight and action. Therefore, there is an increasing demand for citizens with the skills and creativity capable to perform data-driven decision making (Frischemeier et al., 2022 ). For example, the Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education (GAISE) Report (Bargagliotti et al., 2020 ) for the pre-K-12 classroom explicitly emphasize the need for innovative instructional programmes about data analytics to teach students to: formulate questions that can be answered using data, learn to collect data, organize data, create graphs and charts with data to answer their questions. In this context, there is a need for studies that innovate and extend best practices in teaching statistics in schools using data analysis and technology-enhancement through a project-based learning approach (Chew and Dillon, 2014 ; Koparan and Güven, 2014 ). Countless investigations point to the positive impact of technology on students’ attitudes, and so technology-driven teaching becomes a useful pedagogical tool for teaching and learning statistics (Emmioğlu and Capa-Aydin, 2012 ; Ramirez et al., 2012 ).

In this line of research, this paper aims to design, implement, and evaluate a technology-enhanced, project-based intervention that could offer secondary students the statistical and digital skills needed to use data to address real-life problems. Specifically, in this paper, we analyse the effects that this technology-enhanced project-based intervention could have on students’ attitudes toward statistics. Our working hypothesis is that students will improve their positive attitudes towards statistics because the technology-enhanced project-based intervention will create a meaningful and positive learning environment that will raise the student's awareness of the role of data, statistics, and technology in many everyday problems.

In the next sections, we revise previous research on the effects of the four uncombined, innovative educational variables in statistics education, namely: (i) project-based learning, (ii) data analytics approach, (iii) use of technology, and (iv) collaborative work. This will be followed by our research study, the results and discussion of our findings and, finally, the educational implications for statistics education.

Project-based learning and data analytics approach

The use of project-based Learning (henceforth PBL) has been increasingly practised globally in schools. This methodology is characterized by the introduction of the following four educational variables: student-centred learning, problem-solving structured in different research phases, contextualized learning contents in real and open-ended challenges and collaborative work (Haatainen and Aksela, 2021 ). In this line, Batanero and Díaz ( 2011 ) claim the importance of contextualizing the data used in real-life problems when designing PBL in statistics. This aspect encourages, firstly, the student's interest and motivation, even more so if they can choose to tackle the problems they are interested in; secondly, students value the relevance of statistics since it can solve real-life problems and facilitate scientific and economic development. Overall, they adhere to the theory that PBL can improve the students’ attitudes toward statistics. In this same line of argument, Santos ( 2016 ) adds to the equation the influential role of digital technologies in solving collaboratively real-life problems and increasing the positive attitudes towards learning statistics to solve a problem in small groups.

Different quasi-experimental studies have reported the benefits of this innovative methodology on students learning and on students’ attitudes and affect towards statistics (Bateiha et al., 2020 ; Chong et al., 2019 ; Özdemir et al., 2015 ; Markulin et al., 2021 ). In these studies, it is reported that PBL methodology promotes the creation of a creative environment, as most students perceived the project to be an easy and enjoyable activity that favours the learning of mathematical concepts as well as the development of key soft skills such as sense of responsibility, communication skills and ability to work in small groups (Özdemir et al., 2015 ). Besides, PBL encourages students to take a more active role by allowing them to take responsibility for and decisions on their own learning process while the teacher guides them through their learning processes, by taking into account their interests (Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020 ). These PBL characteristics could have a positive impact on students’ attitudes towards statistics (Özdemir et al., 2015 ), and on students’ affect towards learning statistics (Chong et al., 2019 ).

Recently, along with the appearance of interactive technologies, new ways of engaging with real-life data—notably via interactive data visualizations—have emerged and new ways of thinking and learning from complex data have evolved (Engel, 2017 ; Sutherland and Ridgway, 2017 , Rao et al., 2023 ). In this context, various authors have seen the need to develop studies that introduce the perspective of data analytics when designing PBL in teaching statistics (Kazak et al., 2021 ; Zotou et al., 2020 ). From this perspective, data analytics is seen as a process of engaging students creatively in exploring data to understand our world better, draw conclusions, make decisions and predictions, and critically evaluate present/future courses of action (Fujita et al., 2018 ). Data analytics does not focus on learning mathematical procedures but on understanding and interpreting data to solve a real-life problem (Chew and Dillon, 2014 ). Furthermore, data analytics reinforces the active role of students in learning statistics as they must make the effort to focus on the process of understanding and interpreting data to address a real-life problem. The students are encouraged to solve the problem since the teacher acts only as a guide and will not provide them with a solution.

Interactive technologies have been essential in teaching and learning statistics and data analytics. Technologies can provide a creative and interactive environment to represent, visualize and manipulate data in a way that encourages students to think and learn from complex data. In this respect, our educative intervention has designed a technology-enhanced, project-based learning environment that promotes the use of a variety of technological tools for learning key statistical concepts and developing key skills, e.g., explore, understand and interpret data to solve a real problem. In the next section, we will present key studies that have used technology affordances to promote better statistical literacy and positive attitudes toward statistics.

Use of technology to increase the students’ attitudes toward statistics

In the use of technology for teaching mathematics, there is a trend towards constructivist tasks based on research, which supports collaborative approaches, resolution of problems, and the practice of learning by doing. Bray and Tangney ( 2017 ) point this out through a systematic analysis of 139 studies and, in view of the results, conclude that contemporary technologies increase collaboration and allow a practical application of mathematics through visualization, modelling and manipulation. They claim that technologies provide an interactive, dynamic, and contextualized learning of the subject. These technological affordances facilitate experimentation and testing of ideas and manage to change classroom dynamics from the teacher leading the session and transmitting knowledge to more dynamic student-centred research.

Technological tools are also increasingly used in teaching statistics as the means to mediate and promote learning of problem-solving strategies and statistical challenges. Among the affordances of technologies to promote statistical education, Ridgway et al. ( 2017 ) highlight data visualizations as they facilitate interaction with data in a more intuitive, dynamic, and exploratory way. Such software programmes as TinkerPlots (dynamic data exploration, available at https://www.tinkerplots.com/ ) or common online data analysis platform (CODAP, available on http://codap.concord.org ) are widely used to promote statistical literacy and positive attitudes toward statistics. Among the main characteristics of these software programmes, the more salient are the next four: (a) they facilitate modelling activities, in which students can deeply analyse real-world situations through mathematical representations and asking questions, (b) they mediate between conceptual thinking and investigate probability events and identify patterns, (c) they improve intuition about data representation and analysis, and (d) they facilitate the creation of graphs (Gonzalez and Trelles, 2019 ; Kazak et al., 2014 ).

Various authors provide evidence of how the characteristics of technologies such as TinkerPlots, CODAP, and Fathom improve the students’ learning and attitudes. Gonzalez and Trelles ( 2019 ) investigated how a group of 15-year-old students increased their motivation through modelling activities in mathematics through TinkerPlots. In this study, modelling is defined as a learning system that encourages students to ask questions and analyse situations that could be real through mathematics. Other authors agree that the use of technological tools, such as CODAP is essential to develop students’ statistical reasoning (Casey et al., 2020 ; Mojica et al., 2019 ). The ability of CODAP to facilitate working with large data sets makes it easier for students to focus on making decisions about data analysis and reasoning about different forms of data representation, rather than on struggling with computational work, since no programming knowledge is required (Casey et al., 2020 ; Frischemeier et al., 2021 ). In this line, Kazak et al. ( 2014 ) showed how 11-year-olds improved their understanding of statistics with the help of TinkerPlots through collaborative work in small groups. The authors used TinkerPlots as a technology that mediated conceptual thinking to investigate various probability events in statistics and identify patterns. They argued that this software favoured the improvement of the students’ intuition about data representation and analysis and facilitated the creation of graphs.

Many other studies amplify the potential of technology in favouring positive attitudes and learning of mathematics by integrating technology in the classroom along with other teaching and learning strategies that have also proved relevant for improving mathematics learning. Attard and Holmes ( 2020 ) show that new technologies manage to place the student at the centre of the teaching–learning process: technology captures the attention and interest of students by means of immediate instructions and feedback. In addition, technology offers students an additional and different space for communication, beyond the classroom (Attard and Holmes, 2020 ).

The technology-enhanced, project-based study presented in this paper explicitly implements the findings of recent educational research based on supporting classroom dialogue, thinking and collaborative learning. In the next section, we will present these key findings.

Collaborative work

Collaborative work has been embedded in PBL (Fredriksen, 2021 ; Lyons et al., 2021 ; Ozdamli et al., 2013 ; Özdemir et al., 2015 ) and its impact on students’ development of positive attitudes towards mathematical learning is highly reported (Kazak et al., 2014 ; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020 ; Özdemir et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, educational research claims that interactive technologies can afford group work and communication and enrich the development of key problem-solving strategies (Kazak et al., 2014 ; Major et al., 2018 ; Noll et al., 2018 ).

Promotion of collaborative learning involves working explicitly on ground rules, interactional processes, and exploratory talk (Mercer, 2019 ). Exploratory talk improves attitudes toward learning as it facilitates the exploration and understanding of content and promotes intersubjectivity between group members when creating jointly new knowledge and understandings (Gómez, 2016 ; Knight and Mercer, 2015 ; Mercer et al., 2019 ). Dialogue is also very important for better organization and management of the group. This aspect is verified by Kazak et al. ( 2014 ) through an intervention based on collaborative work with technology. In this experiment, students were instructed to communicate with their classmates in a dialogical way, following five ground rules: (1) ensuring that all members of the group contribute with ideas; (2) asking classmates for arguments, listening to explanations and making an effort to understand; (3) being interested in what the others think; (4) taking into account different points of view or alternative methods, and (5) trying to reach a consensus before carrying out an action with the computer. This study, whose main objective was to teach key concepts of statistics and probability to 11-year-old students, through qualitative analysis of the dialogues from the groups, concluded that the students improved their communication with and opinions about their classmates. It also proved that their contributions were incorporated and integrated, thus facilitating the consensus of ideas.

Our study aims to contribute to research on the design and application of innovative methods in teaching statistics. To this end, our research took a quasi-experimental approach toward answering the following research question: what are the effects of a collaborative, technology-enhanced and data-driven project-based intervention on students’ attitudes towards statistics? Our general working hypothesis was that the design and implementation of a long-term real-classroom intervention that embeds and combines the three key educative variables for the promotion of statistics education, i.e., collaborative learning, technology-enhanced learning, and project-based learning, would have a positive impact on the students’ attitudes towards statistics. Furthermore, our expectations were that those students who received a collaborative, technology-enhanced project-based intervention would improve their attitudes towards statistics unlike their counterparts who followed a regular standard curriculum.

Our research aims to confirm or reject the next four hypotheses:

H1. Students following the collaborative, technology-enhanced, data-driven project-based intervention (henceforth SPIDAS) will improve their global attitude towards statistics. This increment will be higher than their counterparts who follow a traditional intervention.

H2. Students following the SPIDAS intervention will decrease their anxiety towards statistics, unlike their counterparts who follow a traditional intervention.

H3. Students following the SPIDAS intervention will increase their affect towards statistics more than their counterparts who follow a traditional intervention.

H4. Students following the SPIDAS intervention will improve their attitude towards learning statistics with technology more than their counterparts who follow a traditional intervention.

This research is part of a larger EU ERASMUS+ project called International Strategic Partnership for Innovative in Data Analytics in Schools (SPIDAS henceforth) aiming to innovate and extend best practices in data analytics in schools. In this paper, we will report only on one aspect of the ERASMUS+ project; with an eye on analysing the impact of a SPIDAS educational intervention on students’ attitudes towards learning statistics, a quasi-experimental design was planned in which an experimental group (henceforth EG) followed the SPIDAS instruction, and a control group (henceforth CG) followed the traditional education method.

Readers can learn more about the design, implementation, and multi-method evaluation of the statistics innovative instructional carried out in this Erasmus+ project in Cujba and Pifarré ( 2023 , 2024 ) and in https://spidasproject.org.uk/ web site.

Participants

A total of 174 students from two Spanish private publicly funded schools in the 8th grade (13–14 years old) participated, either as part of the experimental group (EG) or the control group (CG). 110 students belonging to the EG and had a homogeneous gender distribution: 52.7% (58) of them were girls and 47.3% (52) of them were boys. In the CG participated 64 students and the gender distribution was also homogeneous: 53.12% (34) of them were girls, and 46.88% (30) of them were boys. Additionally, both schools had similar medium socioeconomic characteristics, and the sample demonstrated a comparable level of general academic achievement, as evidenced by the results of the National Test of Basic Skills. Several studies showed a significant correlation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement, being negative in schools with lower socioeconomic status backgrounds (Berkowitz et al., 2017 ).

Additionally, the study assessed participants’ prior statistical knowledge, uncovering a notable deficiency in this area (Cujba and Pifarré, 2023 ). For further insights into the beneficial effects of the innovative instructional design detailed in this paper on enhancing students’ statistical knowledge, readers are encouraged to explore the Cujba and Pifarré ( 2023 ) findings.

Materials and procedure

Following previous research in the area (e.g., Nolan et al., 2012 ), this study evaluates the students’ attitudes towards statistics with technology using a questionnaire developed and validated exploratory into Spanish (Cujba and Pifarré, 2024 ) . In synthesis, the validation process consisted of three steps: firstly, the questionnaire development was based on a thorough revision of previous international questionnaires. Secondly, a double back-translation of the original items was carried out and followed a consensus process among expert judges’ methodology (content validity). Thirdly, the questionnaire developed was applied and tested to a sample of 254 13/14-year-old Spanish Secondary Education students. As a result of this process, a three-factor structure (namely anxiety, learning statistics with technology and effect) was found through exploratory factor analysis using the varimax rotation with the SPSS programme. Evidence of internal consistency was provided with an α  = 0.83 (“anxiety” factor α  = 0.83; “learning statistics with technology” factor α  = 0.76; “affect” factor α  = 0.77). The results showed suitable psychometric properties to use the questionnaire to evaluate secondary education students’ attitudes toward statistics with technology in the Spanish language.

The final version of the questionnaire contains 16 items structured along three factors: anxiety, learning statistics with technology, and affect. The questionnaire was applied to the 174 students who participated in this study at two different moments: before and after the educational intervention. The students were tested individually, and their attitudes were evaluated using a Likert scale of 4 options: 1 = Totally disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, and 4 = Totally agree. Scores on all negatively worded items (i.e., anxiety factor items) were reversed prior to data analysis.

Experimental group (EG) intervention: the collaborative, technology-enhanced data-driven project-based intervention—SPIDAS

The EG educational intervention lasted 30 h, distributed over 2 months. Students completed a real-life statistical project on how the weather influences daily activities, a topic of great current interest that requires well-argued, data-based answers. Students worked in small groups of 3–4, combining on-site classroom activities with work outside the classroom. For the outside work, the groups collaborated synchronously on shared documents using the Google Drive platform.

SPIDAS project incorporates and combines innovatively the three key pedagogical axes considered by the literature review as relevant in promoting data analysis skills in students, namely: (1) data-driven project-based learning, (2) collaborative learning and (3) the use of technology to help to learn statistics through visual learning (Frischemeier et al., 2021 ). In our project, we used the open-source software CODAP. This software has the same attributes as TinkerPlots. Both software are easy to use by inexperienced users, allow flexible plot creation, deal with data as a first-order persistent object, support an exploratory and confirmatory analysis, and are very interactive (McNamara, 2018 ). As a disadvantage, TinkerPlots needs previous installation and a payment license per computer.

Next, we describe how the three pedagogical axes were incorporated into the SPIDAS educational intervention. Fig. 1 graphically illustrates how the SPIDAS intervention leverages and combines the advancements of these three innovative methods for teaching statistics. Readers can learn more about the SPIDAS educational intervention in: https://spidasproject.org.uk .

SPIDAS intervention.

Data-driven project-based learning : The SPIDAS intervention explicitly incorporates the four educational variables highlighted in the PBL literature review (e.g., Batanero and Díaz, 2011 ; Bateiha et al., 2020 ; Haatainen and Aksela, 2021 ): (a) structure of students’ learning process in enquiry phases; (b) statistical literacy contextualized in real and daily life; (c) active role of the students and guidance role of the teacher and (d) development of ‘data analytics (DA) cycle’ drawn on PPDAC statistical enquiry cycle (Wild and Pfannkuch, 1999 ), statistical thinking process (Wild et al., 2011 ) and informal statistical inference (Makar and Rubin, 2018 ). In synthesis, the main tasks of the data-driven project are presented in Table 1 . To give more information about the instructional design, Table 1 and Figs. 2 – 5 present examples of activities of one group of students.

Example of Define the problem activity.

Example of students’ graph for Explore data .

Example of Draw conclusions activity.

Example of Make decisions activity. It is presented students’ infographic to communicate their project decisions and conclusions.

Collaborative learning : Students worked in small groups during the whole project and were encouraged to actively create, reflect and evaluate ideas by using effective communication skills and ground-rules. Three specific strategies from “Thinking Together” programme (Mercer et al., 2019 ) for promoting good small-group work and exploratory talk were explicitly taught and these are (a) reflection on group roles, (b) reflection on attitudes and behaviours that promote collaborative learning, and (c) development of effective ground rules.

Technology : The SPIDAS project used two types of technologies: CODAP data analysis software and different applications linked to Google Drive. CODAP software allows graphical visualization of data and supports students understanding and interpretation of their data. Due to the CODAP interactive and manipulative design, students can actively explore their own data and obtain meaningful graphical representations that could help draw data-based conclusions (e.g., Fig. 3 ). Considering the extensive research about the role of interactive technologies (Major et al., 2017 ; Pifarré, 2019 ) to enhance collaborative work and dialogic discussions, some Google Drive applications (such as Docs, Slides) were used. These applications allow the creation of synchronic and multi-user workspaces that in our project fostered four key processes of collaborative work with technology: (a) discussion of shared ideas; (b) co-construction of new ideas, planning and reflection on joint work; (c) support to the development of statistics literacy and (d) enrichment of data analytics strategies such as organization of data, manipulation of data, creation of graphs, analysis of data and making decisions based on data.

The innovative instructional design advocated for student-centred methodologies, wherein teachers adopted a dual role: part lecturer, part coach, fostering collaborative learning within student groups. They facilitated the data analytics projects undertaken by each group, providing guidance throughout the process and supporting them in drawing conclusions and making informed decisions based on their analyses.

Control group (CG) intervention

The CG followed a traditional intervention. It also lasted 2 months. It was a teacher-centred intervention and the teacher mainly used lectures to teach the same statistical concepts taught in the EG. The statistical literacy taught integrates the next concepts: mean, median, mode, range, variability, qualitative and quantitative variables, frequency, proportional reasoning, count, reading graphs, sample, and population. CG students followed the lectures, had a passive role, paid attention to the explanations of the teachers and applied what they had learned by carrying out a series of individual and routine exercises. Unlike the EG, in the CG all the students worked with the same data provided by the teacher. Some of these exercises were carried out outside the classroom, as homework and these exercises were solved individually.

Regarding the use of technology, Excel software was used. This technological tool consists of a spreadsheet that allows calculations and graph creation. Working with this software requires being knowledgeable about the mathematical operations necessary to execute the desired parameters. We believe that with Excel, students should invest more time in understanding which calculations and formulas they need to apply and how, rather than lesson analysing and interpreting data. The teachers explained in class the operations that were to be carried out with Excel, so that, at home, the students could carry out most of the activities. These activities contained real-life data, yet lacked contextualization of the problem or daily life situation.

Data analysis

In order to analyse the sample normality a Shapiro–Wilk statistical test was run with SPSS. Due to the sample is not normally distributed, non-parametric tests were used. On one hand, for comparing the intragroup differences between the pre-test and post-test results, the Wilcoxon test was established. On the other hand, Mann–Whitney U test was used to analyse the intergroup differences between the post-test results in both groups (experimental vs. control).

This section will analyse the effects of the technology-enhanced, collaborative and data-driven project-based learning on four variables (or factors) included in the questionnaire on the students’ attitudes towards statistics, namely: (a) global attitude towards statistics learning; (b) anxiety towards statistics; (c) affection towards statistics; and (d) attitude towards statistics with technology. The global attitude score resulted from the sum of the 16 items included in the questionnaire ( Annex ). Similarly, the score for each factor was calculated by adding the ratings of all the items that composed each factor. Therefore, the factors of anxiety (i5, i7, i10, i11, i12) and affection (i1, i3, i8, i14, i15) contained five items each and the statistics learning with the technology factor contained six items (i2, i4, i6, i9, i13, i16). The Likert scale was a four-point scale: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), or 4 (strongly agree).

Intervention effect on intragroup differences

Wilcoxon analyses were carried out to study the effect of the educational interventions on each experimental (EG and CG) group of students’ attitudes toward statistics. The effect size was checked with Cohen’s d statistic. Table 2 summarizes these results. Experimental group students showed significant differences ( α  = 0.05) in their global attitude score. Besides, experimental group students displayed significant scoring differences in the anxiety and technology factors. Although there was a positive trend in the affection factor, no statistical significance was found.

The control group students did not show significant differences neither in global attitude scores nor in any of the three factors analysed.

Intervention effect on intergroup differences

A Mann–Whitney U test analysis was carried out to investigate the differences between the two groups, before and after students’ participation in the SPIDAS intervention. The effect size was checked with Cohen’s d statistic. Table 3 summarizes these results. These analyses display significant differences ( α  = 0.05) between EG and CG students as regards their global attitude score and in three factors of the questionnaire: namely Anxiety, Affection, and use of Technology. Figure 6 displays the mean scores obtained by the two groups in pre- and post-measurements of the different factors of the questionnaire and the significant statistical differences observed in the analysis.

Pretest and posttest results and statistical differences between EG and CG students.

Furthermore, these results firstly show that the experimental group obtained higher mean post-test scores than the control group regarding the overall attitude questionnaire towards statistics (see Fig. 6 ). The experimental group presented a higher global attitude score in the questionnaire both before and after the intervention. Although before the intervention the global attitude of the EG students was already higher than that obtained by the CG, the post-intervention improvement was greater and statistically significant in the EG and not in the CG, whose improvement was hardly perceived. This result allows us to conclude that the SPIDAS intervention had a positive impact on the student's attitudes toward learning statistics with technology.

Secondly, EG students significantly decreased their levels of anxiety toward learning statistics after their participation in the SPIDAS intervention, unlike the CG students, who showed a statistically low decrease in this variable. The difference in the post-measure between both groups was statistically significant, being the EG score higher than that of CG students (Fig. 6 ).

Thirdly, regarding the affection factor, in EG students there was a tendency to improve this factor after the SPIDAS intervention. The post-test value was higher than that of the pre-test in this group. On the other hand, in the CG the post score in the affection factor decreased. Therefore, the impact of the traditional intervention had a negative impact on the student’s perception of their abilities to learn and solve statistical problems. The comparison between the two groups (see Fig. 6 ) yielded statistically significant differences between the EG and the CG, in the pre- and post-measures. In addition, the EG showed a higher score in the post-measure while the CG decreased its post-score. This result increased the differences between the two groups in this variable. These data allow us to conclude that the impact of the SPIDAS intervention also had a positive impact on the affection variable towards learning statistics.

Finally, with respect to technology, EG students significantly improved their attitude toward learning statistics with technology after the SPIDAS intervention, unlike the CG students who hardly showed any improvement. The comparison of post-intervention scores between both groups (see Fig. 6 ) as regards the technology factor shows statistical differences between both groups, namely, EG students obtained higher scores in this factor compared to CG students. Thus, the technology-enhanced intervention positively influenced the students’ attitude towards learning statistics.

Discussion and conclusions

The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of technology-enhanced, collaborative, and data-driven project-based learning on the students’ attitudes towards statistics. This study distinguishes itself from other PBL studies on statistics because we investigated a long-term intervention in real classrooms and integrated into one intervention the three pedagogical variables that previous research highlighted as relevant in statistics education: (a) the use of technological tools and affordances for analysing and visualizing data, (b) enrichment of collaborative strategies and (c) project-based learning with a data analysis approach.

Results show that the designed SPIDAS intervention had a highly positive impact on the students’ attitudes toward statistics (Hypothesis 1) and on student’s affect towards learning statistics (Hypothesis 3). Our results support those obtained by other authors that indicate that the PBL is an innovative methodology that meets the necessary characteristics to improve students’ attitudes and increase their interest and motivation towards statistics, as the active role of students in investigating real-life questions is notable (Koparan and Güven, 2014 ; Siswono et al., 2018 ). The EG intervention granted students an active role in investigating a problem that both captured their interest and was related to a daily problem, with the added use of technology. According to Siswono et al. ( 2018 ), improvement in learning statistics is greater if the PBL is combined with technology.

Furthermore, our SPIDAS intervention explicitly taught students a series of collaborative strategies, such as the assumption of different roles, drawing up a joint work plan, managing time for solving problems, distributing responsibilities and co-evaluating group work. Previous educational research highlights that the improvement of the organization and management strategies of group work has a positive impact on the better functioning of small group work and on the creation of positive synergy between group members, which in turn has a positive impact on the all-students’ attitudes towards learning (Chang and Brickman, 2018 ; Pai et al., 2015 ). In this respect, our study confirms these results.

Unlike the results obtained by the EG students, the traditional intervention followed by the CG did not improve the students’ attitudes towards statistics. Previous research points out that one of the limitations of traditional teaching is that it does not contextualize statistical concepts with real-life situations and thus, students cannot establish meaningful links with daily life problems. This has a negative impact on the students’ attitudes towards learning statistics (Bateiha et al., 2020 ; Hwa, 2018 ; Özdemir et al., 2015 ). Our CG students learned statistical concepts focusing on mathematical procedures and calculations of sets of data that bore no relation with their real-life context. This makes it difficult for students to build meaningful learning and feel that statistical concepts could be useful for them outside the school context and for solving daily problems (Lalayants, 2012 ). Different studies highlight that the practical use of curricular content in collaboration with peers and with the teacher’s guidance is one of the key elements that can explain students’ learning (Andrade and Chacón, 2018 ; Torrecilla, 2018 ). These elements are emphasized in the experimental intervention and, on the contrary, are not usually part of a more traditional teaching.

Despite the positive results obtained by EG in all the factors of the questionnaire, it was revealed that for both groups—EG and CG—there was a certain lack of interest of the students towards statistics (item 3 → EG p  = 0.007; CG p  = 0.047) and they did not get to enjoy learning statistics (item 1 → EG p  = 0.081; CG p  = 0.104), since these items present lower scores in post-intervention measure than the pre-test measure. Also, technology did not make the learning of statistics more interesting (item 16 → EG p  = 0.976; CG p  = 0.50). Despite this negative perception of learning statistics, the actual improvement in EG compared to CG is remarkable as it is supported by statistically significant differences.

One possible explanation for the slight improvement in the EG students’ affection may be accounted for in that the PBL involves more complex procedures, more effort, and more time in fulfilling the tasks than traditional teaching to learn the content (Koparan and Güven, 2014 ). Being the first experience of the students with a PBL, they may need being involved in further and longer-term PBL experiences to present better and more positive perceptions about learning statistics. Therefore, more long-term studies using innovative methodologies are needed to investigate more about the impact of these methodologies on students’ attitudes and affection in learning statistics (Siswono et al., 2018 ).

Our results also reveal that the SPIDAS instruction had a positive impact on the decrease of the students’ anxiety towards learning statistics (H2). In addition, our results show that the educational intervention followed by the EG had a greater impact than the traditional intervention followed by the control group in reducing students’ anxiety towards learning statistics. These findings are consistent with those found in previous research studies, which claimed a strong relationship between mathematical anxiety, motivation and mathematical achievement (Abín et al., 2020 ; Henschel and Roick, 2017 ; Passolunghi et al., 2016 ).

On the other hand, unlike the results obtained with EG students, the CG students’ anxiety may not have decreased because they learned statistical contents with insufficient context and application to real life. In this line of argument, Lalayants ( 2012 ) claimed in his study that the fear felt by a group of university students towards learning statistics was caused mainly by the lack of connection between their studies and statistics. Basically, they did not understand how to apply the content to real-life situations. The same group of university students declared in the questionnaire that it would have helped them reduce anxiety if they had found any of the following aspects in their statistics classes, i.e., practical real-life problem-solving related to their future profession, teachers who cared about their negative feelings, working sessions with technology, and collaborative work in small groups, as opposed to individual work.

Although students decreased their anxiety towards statistics after their participation in the SPIDAS intervention, students still expressed certain levels of anxiety when doing statistics (item 11 of the questionnaire → EG p  = 0.069; CG p  = 0.661). On this issue, some authors defend that a low level of anxiety toward statistics is not necessarily totally negative. In some cases, a low level of anxiety can motivate students not to give up and continue working to understand the content (Çiftçi, 2015 ).

These results coincide with those found in previous studies that indicate the benefits of implementing a collaborative and student-centred learning methodology (Bateiha et al., 2020 ) and carrying out contextualized activities involving real-life problems (Chong et al., 2019 ) contributed to the students’ increased affection. These characteristics were included in the SPIDAS intervention and, therefore, helped to improve the EG students’ value judgments and motivation in the present study.

Regarding the intensive use of a variety of technological tools to learn key statistical concepts and data analysis skills (Hypothesis 4), our study indicates a statistically significant improvement in the EG students’ attitude towards learning statistics with technology. CG students do not show any progress on this variable. Therefore, the designed SPIDAS intervention confirms that the combination of the use of technology and collaborative work in small groups are powerful pedagogical tools to improve students’ attitudes towards statistics.

These results are consistent with those found by various authors, such as Kazak et al. ( 2014 ), who present the use of the TinkerPlots software as an enabling technology for understanding statistical concepts. Other authors conclude that new technologies encourage collaboration, motivation and facilitate the performance of student-centred activities, a combination that improves students’ attitudes toward learning statistics (Attard and Holmes, 2020 ; Bray and Tangney, 2017 ; Gonzalez and Trelles, 2019 ; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020 ).

It is worth noting the higher increase shown by EG in comparison with CG in Item 6 (EG p  = 0.000; CG p  = 0.031). In our view, this result suggests that the use of CODAP throughout the SPIDAS intervention supported the students’ creation of useful data visualizations and students’ learning of data analytics skills. CODAP software facilitates learning, and this has a noticeable positive impact on student attitudes (Woodard et al., 2020 ).

As a final conclusion, this study suggests that implementing technology-enhanced, collaborative, and data-driven project-based learning can provide the basis for an appropriate teaching approach to improve secondary students’ attitudes toward statistics, to have a positive impact on the student's motivation to learn statistics and on the reduction of anxiety in solving problems about this subject. In light of the results of this study, these three educative variables should be considered and included in the design of educative interventions that have the objective to engage students in data analytics in which students are able to select a real problem to investigate, collect and explore appropriate data, make inferences and discuss their conclusions using a data-based approach.

The study shows some limitations that call for further research. Firstly, it was the first interaction of students with statistics, the use of CODAP software in PBL and this learning approach requires a high cognitive implication from students during the learning process (Ge and Chua, 2019 ). This novelty may cause a cognitive overload that could reduce the impact of the innovative intervention on the students’ attitudes toward statistics. Therefore, the design of longer interventions with a longitudinal research approach capable of improving the students’ attitudes over a longer period of time would probably soften the impact of cognitive overload.

Secondly, our study has revealed that despite the innovative intervention, some EG students still feel anxiety towards learning statistics. Despite this, some research claims that a certain level of anxiety can boost students’ positive actions to not give up and, as a result, successfully fulfil a task (Çiftçi, 2015 ). Therefore, it would be interesting to design more qualitative research methods capable of capturing and measuring positive levels of anxiety for learning statistics.

Thirdly, as previous studies noted the relevance of socioeconomic status in academic achievement (Berkowitz et al., 2017 ), for future research, the socioeconomic level of the students will be considered as an independent variable.

Fourthly, the questionnaire used in the study has been useful for evaluating students’ attitudes toward statistics using technology. However, the questionnaire needs further validation to extend the results to other contexts. To this end, as a future research action, we plan to expand the sample, analyse its external validity, and compare the results of the confirmatory factor analysis obtained in this study against other samples (such as students from other courses of Secondary Education, Upper Secondary Education and even university students).

The overall results found in this study are promising for improving students’ data analysis competences with technology and they can be seen as a contribution to the United Nations Education 2030 Agenda which emphasises the need to equip all students with technological and mathematical knowledge. By following this agenda, it is expected that a greater number of students will reach the minimum levels of knowledge in mathematics.

Data availability

The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author ([email protected]), upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available because they contain information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.

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Acknowledgements

This paper has been funded by the Strategic Partnership for the Innovative Application of Data Analytics in Schools (SPIDAS) project, European Union’s Erasmus+, under Grant 2017-1-UK01-KA201-036520. Furthermore, the paper has been partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation under Grant PDC2022-133203-I00. All views expressed are those of the authors, not the European Commission or the Spanish Ministry. Finally, the authors would like to thank the teachers and the pupils of the schools Claver Raïmat Jesuïtes-Lleida and Maristes Montserrat-Lleida for their participation in the study reported in this paper.

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Cujba, A., Pifarré, M. Enhancing students’ attitudes towards statistics through innovative technology-enhanced, collaborative, and data-driven project-based learning. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1094 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03469-5

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August 16, 2021

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in

by Sara M Moniuszko

It's no secret that kids hate homework. And as students grapple with an ongoing pandemic that has had a wide-range of mental health impacts, is it time schools start listening to their pleas over workloads?

Some teachers are turning to social media to take a stand against homework .

Tiktok user @misguided.teacher says he doesn't assign it because the "whole premise of homework is flawed."

For starters, he says he can't grade work on "even playing fields" when students' home environments can be vastly different.

"Even students who go home to a peaceful house, do they really want to spend their time on busy work? Because typically that's what a lot of homework is, it's busy work," he says in the video that has garnered 1.6 million likes. "You only get one year to be 7, you only got one year to be 10, you only get one year to be 16, 18."

Mental health experts agree heavy work loads have the potential do more harm than good for students, especially when taking into account the impacts of the pandemic. But they also say the answer may not be to eliminate homework altogether.

Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold, says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health."

"More than half of students say that homework is their primary source of stress, and we know what stress can do on our bodies," she says, adding that staying up late to finish assignments also leads to disrupted sleep and exhaustion.

Cynthia Catchings, a licensed clinical social worker and therapist at Talkspace, says heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.

And for all the distress homework causes, it's not as useful as many may think, says Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, a psychologist and CEO of Omega Recovery treatment center.

"The research shows that there's really limited benefit of homework for elementary age students, that really the school work should be contained in the classroom," he says.

For older students, Kang says homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night.

"Most students, especially at these high-achieving schools, they're doing a minimum of three hours, and it's taking away time from their friends from their families, their extracurricular activities. And these are all very important things for a person's mental and emotional health."

Catchings, who also taught third to 12th graders for 12 years, says she's seen the positive effects of a no homework policy while working with students abroad.

"Not having homework was something that I always admired from the French students (and) the French schools, because that was helping the students to really have the time off and really disconnect from school ," she says.

The answer may not be to eliminate homework completely, but to be more mindful of the type of work students go home with, suggests Kang, who was a high-school teacher for 10 years.

"I don't think (we) should scrap homework, I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That's something that needs to be scrapped entirely," she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments.

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

Mindfulness surrounding homework is especially important in the context of the last two years. Many students will be struggling with mental health issues that were brought on or worsened by the pandemic, making heavy workloads even harder to balance.

"COVID was just a disaster in terms of the lack of structure. Everything just deteriorated," Kardaras says, pointing to an increase in cognitive issues and decrease in attention spans among students. "School acts as an anchor for a lot of children, as a stabilizing force, and that disappeared."

But even if students transition back to the structure of in-person classes, Kardaras suspects students may still struggle after two school years of shifted schedules and disrupted sleeping habits.

"We've seen adults struggling to go back to in-person work environments from remote work environments. That effect is amplified with children because children have less resources to be able to cope with those transitions than adults do," he explains.

'Get organized' ahead of back-to-school

In order to make the transition back to in-person school easier, Kang encourages students to "get good sleep, exercise regularly (and) eat a healthy diet."

To help manage workloads, she suggests students "get organized."

"There's so much mental clutter up there when you're disorganized... sitting down and planning out their study schedules can really help manage their time," she says.

Breaking assignments up can also make things easier to tackle.

"I know that heavy workloads can be stressful, but if you sit down and you break down that studying into smaller chunks, they're much more manageable."

If workloads are still too much, Kang encourages students to advocate for themselves.

"They should tell their teachers when a homework assignment just took too much time or if it was too difficult for them to do on their own," she says. "It's good to speak up and ask those questions. Respectfully, of course, because these are your teachers. But still, I think sometimes teachers themselves need this feedback from their students."

©2021 USA Today Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.

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Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

* Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

* Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

* Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Media Contacts

Denise Pope, Stanford Graduate School of Education: (650) 725-7412, [email protected] Clifton B. Parker, Stanford News Service: (650) 725-0224, [email protected]

HOMEWORK HELP: Teaching students, parents the skills to succeed

GRAND RAPIDS, Mich — With a new school year underway, chances are your student is already coming home with homework.

How can parents help their children ace those assignments?

Read on to learn tips from April Ruiz, a longtime educator and founder of Mosaic Masterminds, a West Michigan-based tutoring organization.

Why is homework important?

Ruiz told FOX 17 students must practice what they are learning outside the classroom.

"There are several benefits to doing homework... for one, it allows our scholars to be able to extend their learning from the school day by applying what they've learned. It also gives them an opportunity to cement the lessons that the teachers have facilitated," Ruiz explained. "I'd say homework is exceedingly important for overall success and for confidence building, which, in our experience as teachers, is half the battle."

How can parents set their student(s) up for success?

Ruiz has several tips for parents to consider as students bring home assignments.

*Be proactive in your child's learning

Ruiz said, "It is exceedingly important to know ahead of time what's coming down the pike, so we're not caught off guard."

That leads to her next tip...

*Stay engaged

Ruiz advises staying in contact with your student's teachers.

"If our parents are clued into what's going on in the classroom, that makes such a tighter partnership in the learning process for the scholar, so, therefore, the teachers know what the students know what the parents know," she explained.

*Don't be afraid to check your student's backpack

Ruiz said this is important, no matter the age.

"Our tweens and teens are going through a lot of physiological changes as well. Their brains are a little scattered sometimes, and it's not always high priority for them to keep at the forefront of their mind an assignment or permission slip for a field trip, for example."

*Develop a routine

Ruiz said that may mean scheduling homework time

"I think it's really important to have a routine established, whether it's chores, homework, family, bonding, time, whatever the case may be, we need to schedule homework just like we schedule our extracurricular activities or other fun things we do outside of school," she explained. "They really appreciate structure. They respond well to it in most cases, and also just having that accountability."

*Take advantage of online resources

Ruiz said there's a wealth of information and learning tools online if your student needs some extra help.

"You could literally Google free math resources or free math literacy resources, free science quizzes online. And there's just a world of things out there that our parents and scholars can take advantage of for added practice. There's flash cards, there's physical flashcards, there's digital flashcards, there's games that are out there that can be played," she said.

*Know when to reach out for extra support

Groups like Mosaic Masterminds are available to help with challenges along the way.

Alicia Czarnik-Hagan has enlisted Mosaic Masterminds to help both of her students.

This summer, her 11-year-old son Harrison worked with a "Mastermind" tutor to prepare for the transition from elementary to middle school.

"My biggest thing right now is just helping to keep them organized and on track," Czarnik-Hagan. "I want [homework] to be done. Like, my expectation is that...I feel like it's important to teach kids about responsibility, organizing, planning, prioritizing, and that's really those skills that you get from homework."

Czarnik-Hagan said her biggest test is navigating the parent-child relationship while helping with assignments.

"It is the most challenging when I'm trying to teach something or explain something to my child, because I wasn't in that classroom that day, and so there's a different relationship," she explained. "Just balancing that relationship after school, of still being a parent, but not pushing too hard and like, breaking that the parent relationship and child relationship."

If there's one more tip to pass along, Ruiz said it's to "do something."

"If you don't have a school that is assigning homework regularly, be that gap filler where you can find opportunities for your scholar to extend his or her learning. Make sure that you are on guard and on duty, checking the parent view app, talking with the teacher, email, pop in and find out what's going on... just make sure that you're doing something. Something is better than nothing, and we want our scholars to win."

You can learn more about Mosaic Masterminds here .

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• Understanding How to Approach Statistics Homework with SPSS

Understanding How to Approach Complex Statistics Homework Using SPSS

In your journey as a student, you will likely encounter statistics homework that require you to perform complex analyses using tools like SPSS. Whether you’re new to the software or have some experience, mastering the skills to solve these types of assignments is crucial. This blog will guide you on how to solve your SPSS homework effectively, breaking down the process into manageable steps, and providing tips that apply to similar problems.

1. Understanding the Problem Statement

Before diving into any statistical analysis, it’s essential to understand the problem statement clearly. Take the time to read and interpret the requirements of your assignment. Typically, assignments involve analyzing relationships between variables, conducting hypothesis testing , checking for assumptions (like normality and homoscedasticity), and interpreting the results.

For instance, in a typical assignment, you might be asked to:

• Regress one variable on another and interpret the results.
• Test for assumptions like heteroscedasticity and normality.
• Determine if the model is well-specified.
• Analyze the impact of additional variables on the results.

2. Organizing and Preparing Your Data

The first step in any analysis is to ensure your data is well-organized. You might be given a dataset in SPSS format or need to import it from Excel or another source. Make sure the variables are labeled correctly and that you understand what each represents.

• Clean the data: Remove any outliers, handle missing data, and ensure your dataset is ready for analysis.
• Understand your variables: Identify dependent and independent variables. For example, if you’re analyzing the relationship between IQ and wages, IQ would be your independent variable, and wage would be your dependent variable.

3. Performing Regressions and Analyzing Relationships

Regression analysis is at the heart of many statistical assignments. You may be required to perform simple linear regression, multiple regression, or even log transformations of variables.

• Simple Linear Regression: This is when you regress one variable on another to determine their relationship. For example, regressing wage on IQ might reveal that a 1-point increase in IQ results in an $8.30 increase in weekly wage.
• Multiple Regression: When more than one independent variable is involved, you’ll use multiple regression. For instance, you might regress exam scores on both class hours and homework submission rates to see how each factor contributes to exam performance.
• Log Transformations: Sometimes, transforming your variables (e.g., taking the logarithm) can help stabilize variance and improve model fit.

4. Hypothesis Testing: Understanding Significance

A key part of regression analysis involves testing hypotheses. You’ll often be asked to test whether the relationship between variables is statistically significant. This involves setting up null (H0) and alternative (H1) hypotheses, performing the regression, and interpreting the p-values.

• Interpreting Results: A p-value less than 0.05 typically indicates that the independent variable has a significant impact on the dependent variable, allowing you to reject the null hypothesis.
• R-Squared Value: This value tells you how much of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable(s). For example, an R-squared value of 0.095 means that 9.5% of the variation in wage is explained by IQ.

5. Checking for Assumptions: Heteroscedasticity, Normality, and Linearity

Your analysis isn’t complete until you check whether the assumptions underlying the regression are met. Common assumptions include:

• Heteroscedasticity: This occurs when the variance of the residuals (errors) is not constant across levels of the independent variable. A Breusch-Pagan test can help determine if heteroscedasticity is present.
• Normality of Residuals: Use a Normal Q-Q plot and histograms to check if the residuals are normally distributed. If they are not, this could indicate problems with your model.
• Linearity: Scatter plots of residuals versus predicted values can reveal if the relationship between variables is linear. A non-linear relationship suggests your model might be misspecified.

6. Model Specification: Is Your Model Correct?

Model specification involves ensuring that your chosen model is appropriate for the data. A misspecified model might include the wrong variables or exclude important ones, leading to biased estimates.

• Adding or Removing Variables: You might be asked to test if adding another variable improves the model. For instance, including homework submission rate along with class hours when predicting exam scores could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence performance.

7. Presenting and Interpreting Your Findings

Once your analysis is complete, you’ll need to present your findings clearly and concisely. This includes reporting:

• The estimated coefficients and their interpretation (e.g., a coefficient of 8.298 for IQ suggests that each additional IQ point increases wage by $8.30).
• The statistical significance of your variables (e.g., “The p-value of 0.000 indicates that IQ significantly affects wage at a 5% significance level”).
• Any issues with assumptions (e.g., “The model exhibits heteroscedasticity based on the Breusch-Pagan test”).

8. Practical Tips for Solving Statistical Assignments

Here are some additional tips to help you navigate similar assignments:

• Use SPSS Effectively: Learn the basics of SPSS, such as importing data, running regressions, and interpreting output. The software has built-in functions for most statistical tests, making your work easier.
• Understand the Theory: Statistical analysis isn’t just about plugging numbers into software. Make sure you understand the underlying theory behind concepts like regression, hypothesis testing, and model assumptions.
• Double-Check Your Work: Always verify your results by cross-referencing them with manual calculations or by running similar tests using different methods.
• Practice, Practice, Practice: The more you practice working on different datasets and assignments, the more confident you’ll become. Work through sample problems, either from your coursework or online, to build your skills.

9. Common Challenges and How to Overcome Them

Statistics assignments can be challenging, especially when dealing with complex datasets and models. Here are some common challenges students face:

• Interpreting SPSS Output: The output generated by SPSS can be overwhelming. Focus on the key results, such as coefficients, p-values, R-squared values, and test statistics.
• Multicollinearity: This occurs when independent variables are highly correlated with each other, leading to unreliable estimates. If you encounter high VIFs (Variance Inflation Factors), consider removing one of the correlated variables.
• Non-Normal Residuals: If your residuals are not normally distributed, consider transforming your variables or using robust regression techniques.

10. Expanding Your Analysis: Adding More Variables and Testing Interactions

In more advanced assignments, you might be asked to explore interactions between variables or include additional factors in your regression model. For example, when analyzing exam scores, you could include variables like hours of revision, sleep, and extracurricular activities.

• Interaction Terms: Interaction terms allow you to examine whether the effect of one variable depends on another. For instance, you might explore whether the impact of class hours on exam scores changes depending on how much homework a student completes.
• Dummy Variables: If your assignment involves categorical variables, you’ll need to include dummy variables in your regression model. For example, in analyzing wage data, you might include a dummy variable for gender (male = 1, female = 0).

11. Final Thoughts: Continuous Learning and Improvement

Statistics is a field that rewards continuous learning. As you progress in your studies, you’ll encounter more complex models, data analysis techniques, and software tools. Keep challenging yourself to go beyond the basics and explore advanced topics like time-series analysis, logistic regression, and panel data models.

Remember, each assignment you complete is an opportunity to improve your skills. By following a systematic approach—understanding the problem, organizing your data, performing analyses, checking assumptions, and interpreting results—you’ll be well-prepared to tackle any statistical assignment that comes your way.

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Quizard AI: Homework Helper 4+

Instant math problem solver, quizard ai, inc., designed for iphone.

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Homework & AI Answers Solver. Are you struggling to keep up with your homework and studying? Don't worry, Quizard is here to help! Quizard is a revolutionary AI answer app designed to help students at all levels conquer their studies. Now introducing our new feature - AI answers for math questions! Just snap a photo of your math problem, and Quizard's AI will deliver the solution, along with a comprehensive explanation. This makes Quizard the perfect tool not only for general studies but also for math homework help. Whether you’re a college student, high school student, or even an adult looking to brush up on your knowledge, Quizard is the perfect tool to help you succeed. With Quizard, you can quickly and easily get help with multiple-choice questions and short answer problems. You can quickly and easily prepare for quizzes, tests, and exams, allowing you to confidently ace them. Quizard is free to use! With Quizard, you can get the help you need to understand the material and gain a better understanding of the subject. Quizard is the perfect homework helper and personal tutor, providing you with the answers you need to succeed. With Quizard, you can get help with your homework and studying, so you can get better grades and have more free time. Stop struggling with your homework and start using Quizard today! Fine print: • Payment will be charged to your Apple ID account at the confirmation of purchase. • Offers and pricing are subject to change without notice. Terms of Use: https://lovely-vault-f15.notion.site/Terms-of-Use-18a469738fd74c9bb7c919981de4bbcd Privacy policy: https://lovely-vault-f15.notion.site/Privacy-Policy-4fe9e56db4a04d88af6e1b78f2874a7d Suggestions or questions? Email us at [email protected] TikTok: @quizard.ai Instagram: @quizard.ai

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Quizzard might just be the hidden gem in the app store, assuming you like your learning served with a heaping spoonful of whimsy and a side of technicolor mayhem. The interface could be described as a unicorn's dream, painted in every hue of the rainbow and then some. It's so cheerfully bright, you'll forget whether you're here to learn or to play a round of digital laser tag. But it’s not all about looks; Quizzard delivers content with a zesty twist that keeps you on your toes. Trivia questions that make your brain do somersaults are the norm here. Ever wanted to decode the molecular structure of caffeine in under a minute or guess Shakespeare's favorite cheese? Quizzard makes such intellectual gymnastics delightful, and you’ll chuckle as much as you'll ponder. Plus, the ads, while frequent, are an adventure in themselves, offering you snippets of the outside world at the most unexpected moments. It’s like getting commercial breaks during your personal game show—annoying but part of the fun. So, strap in for a quiz experience that’s as entertaining as it is enlightening, where every question is a surprise party for your neurons!

GREAT LEARNING TOOL MADE BY A GENIUS DUDE!!! Quizard reads your question and like searches the web for similar information to come up with an answer. Quizard provides a paragraph explanation along with the short answer. READ THOROUGHLY bc it is a computer and sometimes the wording makes it come up with “the wrong (short) answer” even though throughout the (longer paragraph) explanation you can figure out the true answer that Quizard happened to word incorrectly or chose a similar but wrong multiple choice option for. If you’re not trying using it for just the short answer not bothering to read and check the answer and dont read the paragraph then ya.. some of your answers are gonna be wrong. But if it doesn’t give you the right answer it’ll at least provide some explanation to put you on the right path.

DO NOT GET THIS APP!

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Setting up a child with ADHD for school success

Tips for working with teachers, tips for managing adhd symptoms at school, tips for making learning fun for a child with adhd, tips for mastering homework, adhd and school how to help a child with adhd in school.

School can be a challenge for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—but there are ways you can help your child or teen succeed in the classroom.

The classroom environment can pose challenges for a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD). The very tasks these students find the most difficult—sitting still, listening quietly, concentrating—are the ones they are required to do all day long. Perhaps most frustrating of all is that most of these children want to be able to learn and behave like their unaffected peers. Neurological deficits, not unwillingness, keep kids with attention deficit disorder from learning in traditional ways.

As a parent, you can help your child cope with these deficits and overcome the challenges school creates. You can work with your child to implement practical strategies for learning both inside and out of the classroom and communicate with teachers about how your child prefers to learn. With consistent support, the following strategies can help your child enjoy learning, meet educational challenges—and experience success at school and beyond.

Remember that your child’s teacher has a full plate: in addition to managing a group of children with distinct personalities and preferences, they can also expect to be teaching students with ADHD . Teachers may try their best to help your child with attention deficit disorder learn effectively, but parental involvement can dramatically improve your child’s education. You have the power to optimize your child’s chances for success by supporting the steps taken in the classroom. If you can work with and support your child’s teacher, you can directly affect the experience of your child with ADHD at school.

There are a number of ways you can work with teachers to keep your child on track at school. Together you can help your child learn to find their feet in the classroom and work effectively through the challenges of the school day. As a parent, you are your child’s advocate. For your child to succeed in the classroom, it is vital that you communicate their needs to the adults at school. It is equally important for you to listen to what the teachers and other school officials have to say.

You can ensure that communication with your child’s school is constructive and productive. Try to keep in mind that your mutual purpose is finding out how to best help your child succeed in school. Whether you talk over the phone, email, or meet in person, make an effort to be calm, specific, and above all positive—a good attitude can go a long way when communicating with the school.

Plan ahead. You can arrange to speak with school officials or teachers before the school year even begins. If the year has started, plan to speak with a teacher or counselor on at least a monthly basis.

Make meetings happen. Agree on a time that works for both you and your child’s teacher and stick to it. If it’s convenient, meet in your child’s classroom so you can get a sense of their physical learning environment.

Create goals together. Discuss your hopes for your child’s school success. Together, write down specific and realistic goals and talk about how to help your child reach them.

Listen carefully. Like you, your child’s teacher wants to see them succeed at school. Listen to what they have to say—even if it is sometimes hard to hear. Understanding your child’s challenges in school is the key to finding solutions that work.

Share information. You know your child’s history, and your child’s teacher sees them every day: together you have a lot of information that can lead to better understanding of your child’s hardships. Share your observations freely, and encourage your child’s teachers to do the same.

Ask the hard questions and give a complete picture. Be sure to list any medications your child takes and explain any other treatments. Share with the teacher which tactics work well—and which don’t—for your child at home. Ask if your child is having any problems in school, including on the playground. Find out if they are eligible for any special services to help with learning.

Developing and using a behavior plan

Children with ADD/ADHD are capable of appropriate classroom behavior, but they need structure and clear expectations in order to keep their symptoms in check. As a parent, you can help by developing a behavior plan for your child—and sticking to it. Whatever type of behavior plan you decide to implement, create it in close collaboration with your child and their teacher.

Kids with ADHD respond best to specific goals and daily positive reinforcement—as well as worthwhile rewards. Yes, you may have to hang a carrot on a stick to motivate your child to behave better in class. Create a plan that incorporates small rewards for small victories and larger rewards for bigger accomplishments.

Find a behavior plan that works

The Daily Report Card is a downloadable behavior plan, which can be adjusted for elementary, middle, and even high school students with ADHD.

Source:  Center for Children and Families

Developing an individualized education program (IEP)

An IEP is a free service in the United States that outlines unique accommodations to help your child with ADHD reach set goals in the classroom. For example, an IEP might include: 

• Extra time for your child to spend on quizzes and tests. 
• Learning plan tailored to their specific needs.
• Relocation to a classroom environment with fewer distractions. 

An IEP will also include specific, measurable goals so you can keep track of what’s working best for your child. 

As a parent, you can refer your child for an IEP. However, to be eligible, your child may need to undergo an evaluation that involves a review of their performance in classwork and observations of their behavior. A team of professionals—which might include teachers and healthcare providers—will conduct the assessment and then work with you to come up with a plan.

ADHD impacts each child’s brain differently, so each case can look quite different in the classroom. Children with ADHD exhibit a range of symptoms: some seem to bounce off the walls, some daydream constantly, and others just can’t seem to follow the rules.

As a parent, you can help your child reduce any or all of these types of behaviors. It is important to understand how attention deficit disorder affects different children’s behavior so that you can choose the appropriate strategies for tackling the problem. There are a variety of fairly straightforward approaches you and your child’s teacher can take to best manage the symptoms of ADHD—and put your child on the road to school success.

Managing distractibility

Students with ADHD may become so easily distracted by noises, passersby, or their own thoughts that they often miss vital classroom information. These children have trouble staying focused on tasks that require sustained mental effort. They may seem as if they’re listening to you, but something gets in the way of their ability to retain the information.

Helping kids who distract easily involves physical placement, increased movement, and breaking long stretches of work into shorter chunks.

• Seat the child with ADHD away from doors and windows. Put pets in another room or a corner while the student is working.
• Alternate seated activities with those that allow the child to move their body around the room. Whenever possible, incorporate physical movement into lessons.
• Write important information down where the child can easily read and reference it. Remind the student where the information is located.
• Divide big assignments into smaller ones, and allow children frequent breaks.

Reducing interrupting

Kids with attention deficit disorder may struggle with controlling their impulses, so they often speak out of turn. In the classroom or at home, they call out or comment while others are speaking. Their outbursts may come across as aggressive or even rude, creating social problems as well. The self-esteem of children with ADHD is often quite fragile, so pointing this issue out in class or in front of family members doesn’t help the problem—and may even make matters worse.

Correcting the interruptions of children with ADHD should be done carefully so that the child’s self-esteem is maintained, especially in front of others. Develop a “secret language” with the child with ADHD. You can use discreet gestures or words you have previously agreed upon to let the child know they are interrupting. Praise the child for interruption-free conversations.

Managing impulsivity

Children with ADHD may act before thinking, creating difficult social situations in addition to problems in the classroom. Kids who have trouble with impulse control may come off as aggressive or unruly. This is perhaps the most disruptive symptom of ADHD, particularly at school.

Methods for managing impulsivity include behavior plans, immediate discipline for infractions, and a plan for giving children with ADHD a sense of control over their day.

Make sure a written behavior plan is near the student. You can even tape it to the wall or the child’s desk.

Give consequences immediately following misbehavior. Be specific in your explanation, making sure the child knows how they misbehaved.

Recognize good behavior out loud. Be specific in your praise, making sure the child knows what they did right.

Write the schedule for the day on the board or on a piece of paper and cross off each item as it is completed. Children with impulse problems may gain a sense of control and feel calmer when they know what to expect.

Managing fidgeting and hyperactivity

Students with ADHD are often in constant physical motion. It may seem like a struggle for these children to stay in their seats. Kids with ADD/ADHD may jump, kick, twist, fidget and otherwise move in ways that make them difficult to teach.

Strategies for combating hyperactivity consist of creative ways to allow the child with ADHD to move in appropriate ways at appropriate times. Releasing energy this way may make it easier for the child to keep their body calmer during work time.

Ask children with ADHD to run an errand or complete a task for you, even if it just means walking across the room to sharpen pencils or put dishes away.

Encourage a child with ADHD to play a sport —or at least run around before and after school—and make sure the child never misses recess or P.E.

Provide a stress ball , small toy, or another object for the child to squeeze or play with discreetly at their seat.

Limit screen time in favor of time for movement.

Dealing with trouble following directions

Difficulty following directions is a hallmark problem for many children with ADHD. These kids may look like they understand and might even write down directions, but then aren’t able to follow them as asked. Sometimes these students miss steps and turn in incomplete work, or misunderstand an assignment altogether and wind up doing something else entirely.

Helping children with ADHD follow directions means taking measures to break down and reinforce the steps involved in your instructions, and redirecting when necessary. Try keeping your instructions extremely brief, allowing the child to complete one step and then come back to find out what they should do next. If the child gets off track, give a calm reminder, redirecting in a calm but firm voice. Whenever possible, write directions down in a bold marker or in colored chalk on a blackboard.

One positive way to keep a child’s attention focused on learning is to make the process fun. Using physical motion in a lesson, connecting dry facts to interesting trivia, or inventing silly songs that make details easier to remember can help your child enjoy learning and even reduce the symptoms of ADHD.

Helping children with ADHD enjoy math

Children who have attention deficit disorder tend to think in a “concrete” manner. They often like to hold, touch, or take part in an experience to learn something new. By using games and objects to demonstrate mathematical concepts, you can show your child that math can be meaningful—and fun.

Play games. Use memory cards, dice, or dominoes to make numbers fun. Or simply use your fingers and toes, tucking them in or wiggling them when you add or subtract.

Draw pictures. Especially for word problems, illustrations can help kids better understand mathematical concepts. If the word problem says there are twelve cars, help your child draw them from steering wheel to trunk.

Invent silly acronyms . In order to remember the order of operations, for example, make up a song or phrase that uses the first letter of each operation in the correct order.

Helping children with ADHD enjoy reading

There are many ways to make reading exciting, even if the skill itself tends to pose a struggle for children with ADHD. Keep in mind that reading at its most basic level involves stories and interesting information—which all children enjoy.

Read to children. Make reading cozy, quality time with you.

Make predictions or “bets.” Constantly ask the child what they think might happen next. Model prediction: “The girl in the story seems pretty brave—I bet she’s going to try to save her family.”

Act out the story. Let the child choose their character and assign you one, too. Use funny voices and costumes to bring it to life.

How does your kid prefer to learn?

When children are given information in different ways it can make it easy for them to absorb. While many children have a learning preference, it’s often best to use multiple types of teaching to keep kids with ADHD engaged.

• Auditory teaching involves talking and listening. Your child could recite facts to a favorite song, for example, or pretend they are on a radio show.
• Visual teaching uses reading or observation. Let them have fun with different fonts on the computer and use colored flash cards to study. Allow them to write or draw their ideas on paper.
• Tactile teaching uses physical touch or movement as part of a lesson. You could provide jellybeans for counters, for example, or costumes for acting out parts of literature or history. Let them use clay and make collages.

Speak to a Licensed Therapist

BetterHelp is an online therapy service that matches you to licensed, accredited therapists who can help with depression, anxiety, relationships, and more. Take the assessment and get matched with a therapist in as little as 48 hours.

Sure, kids may universally dread it—but for a parent of a child with ADHD, homework is a golden opportunity. Academic work done outside the classroom provides you as the parent with a chance to directly support your child. It’s a time you can help your child succeed at school where you both feel most comfortable: your own living room.

With your support, kids with ADHD can use homework time not only for math problems or writing essays, but also for practicing the organizational and study skills they need to thrive in the classroom.

Helping a child with ADHD get organized

When it comes to organization, it can help to get a fresh start. Even if it’s not the start of the academic year, go shopping with your child and pick out school supplies that include folders, a three-ring binder, and color-coded dividers. Help the child file their papers into this new system.

• Establish a homework folder for finished homework and organize loose papers by color-coding folders. Show your child how to file appropriately.
• Help your child organize their belongings on a daily basis, including backpack, folders, and even pockets.
• If possible, keep an extra set of textbooks and other materials at home.
• Help your child learn to make and use checklists, crossing items off as they accomplish them.

Helping a child with ADHD get homework done on time

Understanding concepts and getting organized are two steps in the right direction, but homework also has to be completed in a single evening—and turned in on time. Help a child with ADHD to the finish line with strategies that provide consistent structure.

• Pick a specific time and place for homework that is as free as possible of clutter, pets, and television.
• Allow the child breaks as often as every ten to twenty minutes.
• Teach a better understanding of the passage of time: use an analog clock and timers to monitor homework efficiency.
• Set up a homework procedure at school: establish a place where the student can easily find their finished homework and pick a consistent time to hand in work to the teacher.

Other ways to help your child with homework

Encourage exercise and sleep. Physical activity improves concentration and promotes brain growth. Importantly for children with ADHD, it also leads to better sleep , which in turn can reduce the ADHD symptoms.

Help your child eat right. Scheduling regular nutritious meals and snacks while cutting back on junk and sugary foods can help manage symptoms of ADHD.

Take care of yourself so you’re better able to care for your child. Don’t neglect your own needs. Try to eat right, exercise, get enough sleep, manage stress , and seek face-to-face support from family and friends.

More Information

• Homework Help - Tips for children with ADHD. (National Resource Center on ADHD)
• Supporting School Success - Including how to get your child organized, enlisting the school’s help, and seeking evaluation. (American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry)
• Motivating the Child - How ADHD symptoms interfere with classroom expectations and how to realistically motivate your child. (LD Online)
• Securing Accommodations at School - Meeting your child’s educational needs with ADHD accommodations at school. (ADDitude)
• Contents of the IEP - Guide to developing an Individualized Education Program (IEP) with school staff to address your child’s educational needs. (Center for Parent Information and Resources)
• Neurodevelopmental Disorders. (2013). In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . American Psychiatric Association. Link
• AACAP. Supporting School Success. (n.d.). American Academy of Adolescent & Child Psychiatry. Retrieved August 12, 2021, from Link
• Teaching Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Instructional Strategies and Practices– Pg 1. (2008). [Reference Materials; Instructional Materials]. US Department of Education. Link
• Gaastra, G. F., Groen, Y., Tucha, L., & Tucha, O. (2016). The Effects of Classroom Interventions on Off-Task and Disruptive Classroom Behavior in Children with Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analytic Review. PLOS ONE, 11(2), e0148841. Link
• CDC. (2019, November 7). ADHD in the Classroom . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
• “Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) (for Parents) – Nemours KidsHealth.” Accessed February 15, 2024. Link

More in ADHD

What teachers can do to help kids in the classroom

ADHD Parenting Tips

Learn what you can do to help your child thrive

ADHD in Children

What Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder looks like in kids

ADHD in Adults

Recognizing the signs and symptoms, and what you can do about it

Tips for dealing with symptoms, and being more focused and organized

ADHD Medications

Are ADHD drugs right for you or your child?

Dealing with symptoms together and developing a solid partnership

Learn how ADHD is diagnosed in kids and adults

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• Home Office

Why do people come to the UK? To study

Published 22 August 2024

© Crown copyright 2024

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned.

This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/immigration-system-statistics-year-ending-june-2024/why-do-people-come-to-the-uk-to-study

Back to ‘Immigration system statistics, year ending June 2024’ contents page .

Data relates to the year ending June 2024 and all comparisons are with the year ending June 2023 (unless indicated otherwise). All data includes dependants, unless indicated otherwise.

1. Sponsored study visas

In the year ending June 2024, there were 432,225 sponsored study visas granted to main applicants, 13% fewer than in the year ending June 2023 but 61% higher than 2019.

Between 2011 and 2016 sponsored study visa grants to foreign students were relatively stable at around 200,000 per year (see Figure 1). After 2016 the numbers steadily increased, reaching 268,674 in 2019. Following a fall in numbers during the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of visas issued have subsequently increased sharply, reaching a peak of just under half-a-million (498,068) in the year ending June 2023. The number of visas issued in the latest year are slightly lower than this peak, at 432,225.

The large increase between mid-2020 and mid-2023 was in part due to travel opportunities re-emerging as COVID-19 related restrictions were eased along with changes to the Immigration System following the UK’s departure from the EU which ended free movement for many EEA nationals (excluding those with status on the EU Settlement Scheme or other indefinite leave to remain).

In the year ending June 2024 there were 94,253 visas issued to student dependants, 39% fewer than the previous year but almost 6 times higher than in 2019.

The decrease in dependants of students followed a policy change for courses starting on or after 1 January 2024, whereby only researched-based postgraduate students are now allowed to bring dependants (partners and children) to the UK. In the first 6 months following this change (January to June 2024) the number of sponsored study dependent visas granted fell by 81% compared to the same period in 2023, to 11,675. Over the same period, the number of main applicants granted a visa also decreased, by 23% to 82,367. Policy changes are one of a number of factors that may have impacted visa application volumes and it will be necessary to await the peak in student applications for the next academic year (which usually comes in August/September) before we can see the full effect of policy changes and any other impacts.

Figure 1: Sponsored study visas granted by applicant type, between the year ending June 2011 and the year ending June 2024

Source: Entry clearance visa applications and outcomes – Vis_D02

Figure 1 shows that there were around one dependent for every 5 visas granted to foreign students in the latest year. There were sharp increases in both the number of main applicant and dependant visas granted following the COVID-19 pandemic and UK’s departure from the EU . The number of dependants peaked in the year ending June 2023 with around 3 dependants for every 10 main applicants. However, the number of main applicants and dependants have since fallen in the first two quarters of 2024.

Figure 2: Sponsored study visas granted to the top 5 nationalities (main applicants), between the year ending June 2016 and the year ending June 2024

Figure 2 shows that most of the increase in foreign students between 2019 and 2023 were from Indian and Nigerian nationals, but numbers for these nationalities have fallen in the latest year (by 23% and 46% respectively) with Pakistani nationals overtaking Nigerians as the third largest nationality in the latest year.

There were 110,006 sponsored study visa grants to main applicants who were Indian nationals in the year ending June 2024 (25% of the total), 32,687 fewer than the previous year. The majority (81%) of Indian students came to the UK to study at masters level in the latest year. Chinese nationals are the second most common nationality granted sponsored study visas (107,236), accounting for 25% of the total, with a smaller proportion studying at masters level (59%) compared to Indian nationals.

Figure 3: Student visas granted to main applicants by course level, between the year ending June 2019 and the year ending June 2024

Source: Sponsored study visas by course level – Edu_D02

• ‘Other and unknown’ includes visas issued to courses below bachelors level, pre-sessional English courses, courses not able to be identified, and a small number of visas which couldn’t be matched to a Confirmation of Acceptance for Studies.
• Does not include child student routes.

Figure 3 shows that almost two-thirds (65%) of student visas granted in the year ending June 2024 were for masters level courses. The number of grants to students coming to study at masters level increased each year between the year ending June 2019 (prior to the pandemic and UK leaving the EU ) and the year ending June 2023 (to 326,385), but fell slightly in the latest year to 270,460.

After masters, the most common level for student visas granted to main applicants was bachelors with 105,519 grants (25% of the total).

Visas for students at doctoral level or other course levels made up a smaller proportion (10%) of grants in the latest year.

2. Extensions of Study

The Graduate route allows students who have successfully completed a bachelor’s degree, postgraduate degree or other eligible course to stay in the UK for a period after their studies to work or look for work. Statistics on extensions granted on the Graduate route are included in ‘Why do people come to the UK? To work’ .

The Home Office have also published a report ‘Analysis of migrants use of the Graduate route’ on the 14 May 2024, providing an in-depth analysis of those who enter and leave the Graduate route using Migrant Journey data and insights on earnings by linking Home Office visa records to HMRC income data. This report complements the Migration Advisory Committee’s (MAC’s) ‘Rapid Review of the Graduate Route’ published on the same date.^

In the year ending June 2024, grants of extensions into sponsored study routes for main applicants decreased by 39% to 34,880 compared with the year ending June 2023 (56,960).

The number of study extensions will be impacted by the volume and types of students coming to the UK in recent years. Many nationalities saw fewer extensions in the latest year and overall numbers have fallen following the increase in grants in 2022 and 2023, peaking in the year ending June 2023. Chinese main applicants were the largest nationality (36% of the total) granted an extension into sponsored study routes with 12,485 grants in the year ending June 2024, but this was 51% fewer extensions than the previous year.

Analysis linking the current category of leave to the previous category of leave shows that of the main applicants granted a study visa extension in the year ending March 2024, the vast majority (86%) held a study visa before their current study extension was granted. A further 9% previously held a work visa, and the remaining 5% previously held a visa in the Other or Unknown categories.

Analysis from the Migrant Journey: 2023 report shows that historically most foreign students have not remained in the UK indefinitely. Since 2007, fewer than 10% of the people who came to study in the UK still had indefinite leave to remain 10 years later (compared to over 20% who came for work and over 80% for family reasons).

The 2020 cohort is the first for which students of any course length could transfer directly to the graduate route. For this cohort of students, 57% still held valid or indefinite leave 3 years later, at the end of 2023 compared to 39% in the 2019 cohort and 34% for students arriving between 2011 and 2018.

3. About these statistics

The statistics in this section provide an indication of the number of people who have an intention to enter the UK for study reasons. Further information on the statistics in this section can be found in the user guide . Before 2021, due to freedom of movement for European Union ( EU ) nationals, the vast majority of UK immigration control statistics related to non-European Economic Area ( EEA ) nationals. From 2021, unless otherwise stated, the statistics in this release relate to both EEA and non- EEA nationals.

Entry clearance visas allow an individual to enter and stay in the UK within the period for which the visa is valid. Data in this section refers to the number of Entry clearance visas granted for study reasons within the period. If an individual was granted a visa more than once in a given period, this has been counted as multiple grants in the statistics.

Year-on-year comparisons of the number of decisions can be affected by quarterly fluctuations in the data. These fluctuations can be examined in the quarterly data in the published tables. Year ending comparisons will also include impacts resulting from the travel restrictions put in place during the COVID-19 pandemic.

3.1 Confirmation of Acceptance for Studies

In order to be granted a sponsored study visa, a main applicant must get a ‘Confirmation of Acceptance for Studies’ ( CAS ) from their educational provider as evidence of an unconditional offer to study a course with a licensed student sponsor. Around 9 in 10 sponsored study visa applications are for the higher education sector (such as universities), which has accounted for most of the growth in students in recent years.

3.2 Extension of temporary stay in the UK

Extensions of temporary stay in the UK relate to individuals inside the UK extending or changing the status of their right to stay in the UK. An individual is required to apply for an extension or change in status before their existing permission to enter or stay in the UK expires.

The statistics in this section show the number of grants and refusals on applications for extension of temporary stay in the UK. One individual may have made multiple applications for an extension, so may account for multiple decisions. Data in this section accounts for the outcomes of reconsiderations and appeals. The statistics do not show the number of people applying to extend their temporary stay in the UK, nor does it show how long an individual stayed in the UK following their extension.

3.3 Other sources

The Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) publish long-term international migration estimates . These are statistics under development that estimate the number of people immigrating to and emigrating from the UK for 12 months or more.

In August 2024, HESA published its latest ‘Higher Education Student Statistics UK’ for the academic year 2022 to 2023. HESA publishes data on new entrants to UK higher education providers for both EEA and non- EEA nationals.

In December 2023, the Migration Advisory Committee (MAC) published their fourth annual report . This report includes analysis of how the immigration system is being used within and across the nations of the UK.

4. Data tables

Data on student immigration can be found in the following tables:

Entry clearance visas summary tables

Detailed entry clearance visas datasets

Sponsorship summary tables

Detailed sponsorship datasets

Detailed education datasets

Admissions summary tables

Extensions summary tables

Detailed extensions datasets

• Migrant journey summary tables
• Migrant journey: 2023 dataset

We welcome your feedback

If you have any comments or suggestions for the development of this report, please provide feedback by emailing [email protected] . Please include the words ‘PUBLICATION FEEDBACK’ in the subject of your email.

We’re always looking to improve the accessibility of our documents. If you find any problems or have any feedback relating to accessibility, please email us.

See section 6 of the ‘About this release’ section for more details.

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